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Dole bludgers or economic victims? : an examination of factors associated with lay explanations for unemployment : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Psychology at Massey University
(Massey University, 1993) Hodson, Tracey R
Societal reactions to unemployment are linked, in part, to how the cause of unemployment is perceived. This study investigated the underlying structure, and determinants of lay explanations for unemployment in four socio-economic groups; namely student, retired, employed, and unemployed groups. The study examined which types of explanations were rated most important, and the extent to which demographic and personality factors were associated with the types of explanations endorsed. Results showed that overall, societal factors were rated most important, followed by individualistic, then fatalistic factors. Significant effects were found for group membership where individualistic factors were rated less important by the unemployed, societal factors were rated less important by students and the retired, while fatalistic factors were rated less important by the employed. Significant effects were found for education, religious activity, vote, and length of unemployment. The Protestant work ethic, conservatism, and belief in a 'just world' were related to individualistic explanations for unemployment. Findings were discussed with reference to the increase in unemployment, the influence of the media, and to developing public policy, and programmes in relation to unemployment.
Get off the bus : a study of redundancy amongst older workers in Palmerston North : a thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts
(Massey University, 1995) Swanston, Ross James
This thesis sets out to examine the experience of redundancy as it effected the lives of a small sample of older workers when they were laid off from their industrial site. The study begins by highlighting the extent to which previous research into the personal consequences of losing a job has to a large measure been limited because of a strong tradition of dualism within sociology. More specifically, the tensions and struggles of individuals as they endeavour to cope with the upheavals of suddenly finding themselves without a job have been divided into two schools of thought Either, autonomous, voluntary (freely choosing), vulnerable older workers have been portrayed as struggling against, or determined by an oppressive 'system', or redundancy has been subjectively interpreted from the point of view of the actor where autonomy once more or having 'choices' is the defining characteristic of research. These theoretical constructions wherein social life has been polarized into one of two 'camps' of thought are challenged by this thesis. I argue that the result has been to marginalise, or neglect the very construction of subjectivity by previous researchers when investigating this subject. This study is presented against the background of worsening economic conditions for a large number of citizens, escalating unemployment and the creation of a 'flexible' labour market in New Zealand after 1984 These conditions have led to far reaching and in many cases cruel changes in the working environment for those fortunate enough to be there. My argument draws upon the deconstructionism of Michel Foucault to put forward a more adequate sociological appreciation of the processes occurring during redundancy. By focusing on the relationship between power and subjectivity and utilising such an approach I hope to make visible and explain certain critical issues of control and dependency. This will show how subtle manipulations have a determining influence on the lives of the long serving employees at Zenith prior to, during and after they lost their jobs.
The influence of social support on the psychological effects of unemployment : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Economics at Massey University
(Massey University, 2000) Marshall, Andrew
Over the past two decades the proportion of people suffering long-term unemployment has risen in the developed countries. It is agreed that transitory shocks to aggregate demand initially contributed to the high rates of unemployment but there are divergent views as to why these high rates have persisted. Some suggest that these shocks may influence structural factors on the supply-side of the economy. Darity and Goldsmith (1993; 1996) propose a labour market model in which the deleterious psychological effects of unemployment cause contractions in labour demand and supply to persist thus exacerbating unemployment. The model is outlined and the psychology literature concerning its tenets is reviewed. The literature is reviewed as to whether and how social relationships and support ameliorate the psychological distress associated with unemployment. To determine whether unemployment is psychologically deleterious and whether this may be offset by certain types and sources of social support, an exploratory survey examined a small cross-section of people registered with Work and Income New Zealand (WINZ) as unemployed a year before the study. The respondents included people who remained unemployed throughout the entire period, people who had experienced recurrent spells of unemployment and people who had re-entered paid employment and were employed when surveyed. No difference in psychological wellbeing was found on the basis of employment status but differences were found in perceptions of the availability of different types of support from different sources. Those who were re-employed when they were surveyed gained psychological benefits from support derived from the immediate family and associative relationships (e.g. neighbours, workplace and leisure associates). Emotional and socialising support derived from the immediate family appeared to be particularly psychologically beneficial. The analysis further indicates that psychologically healthy and distressed individuals differ in their perceptions of the availability of support from the immediate family and in the availability of financial support from the overall network.
Unskilled youth, unemployment and training : a case study : a thesis presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Social Policy at Massey University
(Massey University, 1999) Coulter, Rosalind A
This thesis explores a training course as a way of helping unskilled school leavers become more employable. They were found to be at a disadvantage in the labour market because they lack skills and are at a greater risk of suffering from long-term unemployment. The effects of unemployment on youth are explored in the literature review and identified as having a detrimental effect on health and well being, with the long-term risk of creating a pattern of permanent unemployment. TOPS, a fully Government funded vocational training programme targeted to the disadvantaged in the labour market, responds to this need. This research followed the progress of eight unskilled school-leavers who were involved in a TOPS course. They were interviewed before, immediately after and again six weeks following their course. To augment this investigation interviews were also conducted with the training providers. Following the literature in this area, the relative merits of training courses and their delivery are investigated. Findings of this select group of young people involved on a TOPS course suggest that for most of them this scheme enabled them to increase their skill levels and greatly enhance their chances of employment in the future. The majority were successful in moving on immediately to further vocational training. The nature of educational delivery played a significant role in establishing this transition with a focus on creating an encouraging, nurturing learning environment and providing high quality teaching. Work experience complemented coursework by reinforcing practical skills and encouraging self-reliance. As a method of policy intervention, with reference to this TOPS course, I recommend that it justified the investment of funds involved.
Challenging assumptions : the application of a world views model to involuntary job loss : this thesis is presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Master of Arts in Psychology, at Massey University
(Massey University, 1999) Simpson, Jeff
Research by Janoff-Bulman has established that subsequent to experiencing a highly traumatic event, the world assumptions of trauma victims differ to those of individuals who have not experienced the same trauma. In utilising the Janoff-Bulman trauma model, this study investigated the world assumptions of people who had experienced involuntary job loss (IJL). As a result of my practical experience in outplacement counselling, it was my belief that IJL would be experienced differently by each individual. This study gave an the opportunity to measure the world assumptions of people who had experienced the same event and provided a model to help explain individual differences in reaction to this life stressor. The world assumptions, perceived level of job loss impact, and demographic factors were measured of 122 IJL participants. Firstly, level of emotional impact was measured, then categorised using the General Health Questionnaire (GHQ). As a result, 36.9% (n=45) of the participant group were identified as high impact, while 63% (n=77) were identified as low impact. This confirmed the issue of response variation to IJL. A regressional analysis found significant differences in four world assumptions between the two groups. The high impact group reported a lower level of self worth compared to the low impact group, though, inconsistent with the Janoff-Bulman model, the high impact group reported a higher belief in benevolence of people, benevolence of the world, and the belief of luck. These findings, along with implications for counsellors working in this area, are discussed with possible explanations proposed.
Long-term unemployment and mental health in New Zealand : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Psychology at Massey University
(Massey University, 1992) Pernice, Regina
Te aim of the present research was to identify environmental features and personal characteristics and their relationship to mental health among long-term unemployed people in New Zealand. Warr's Vitamin Model of unemployment was investigated in a cross-sectional/longitudinal study. In the Main Study 532 people who had been unemployed for at least six months, were surveyed. A wide ranging questionnaire, the General Health Questionnaire 12 (GHQ) and the Rosenberg (1965) Self-Esteem Scale (RSE) were administered. This was followed by an interview in which people selected themselves into 4 groups. One group or 28.6% "wanted employment", 35% felt "not able to work", 27.2% stated having "alternatives to employment" and a small minority of 9.2% were "interested in training". One year later, people from each of the 4 unemployed groups and one group of re-employed people were re-interviewed in the Follow-up Study (N=99). A shortened questionnaire, the GHQ, the RSE and the Hopkins Symptom Checklist 25 (HSCL) were administered. A series of multiple regressions supported Warr's Vitamin Model, as five environmental features were associated with mental health levels in the Main Study and two in the Follow-up Study. A number of personal characteristics were also significant predictors of mental health. Generally, mental health levels of the unemployed were low, but re-employment resulted in significant improvements. The results of the Follow-up Study showed that the percentage of people "wanting employment" and "interested in training" decreased, whereas the group having "alternatives to employment" increased. The group "not able to work" stayed the same in size. Mental health levels were low in the groups "wanting employment" and "interested in training". Extremely low mental health was evident in the group "not able to work". In the group "alternatives to employment" mental health levels were high and more similar to levels observed in the employed group. Several moderator variables of the negative experience of unemployment were tested such as "age", "gender", "marital status" and "stated ethnic origin". The results show that long-term unemployed people are not a homogeneous group and significant differences in mental health exist within sub-groups. Recommendations for future research were made.
Psychological aspects of unemployment : attributions about the causes of success and failure in job seeking : a thesis presented in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Psychology at Massey Universit
(Massey University, 1982) Hesketh, Beryl Lilian
The validity of applying Kelley's covariation attribution model to understanding the perceived causes of success and failure of job seekers was tested on 168 psychology students using hypothetical case descriptions in a laboratory study. The same model was also tested on the self attributions of 82 newly registered unemployed in a field study. Results from the laboratory study provided support for Kelley's predictions for ability and luck attributions. Mixed support was obtained for task difficulty/ease attributions, partly because of the influence of order effects and the bias against attributing success to task ease. Little support was obtained for effort attributions, with only distinctiveness demonstrating the predicted significant main effect. In the field study, where self attributions were obtained for a previous success in job seeking and for currently being unemployed, support for Kelley's covariation model was weak with only distinctiveness relating significantly to lack of ability and consistency to bad luck. Possible reasons offered for the lack of support for the theory in the field study include the influence of group identity, individual differences in the perception of the stability and locus of causes, and the greater realism of the field setting. The fundamental attribution error and the success failure bias were tested in the laboratory setting for other attributions and in the field study for self attributions. More support was obtained for the predicted relationships involving attributions about others' behaviour in the laboratory study than for self attribution in the field study. For both self and other attribution, internal factors were stressed more than external factors. In the field study the combined influence of self-esteem and locus of control on the perceived causes for being unemployed was examined. Those with high self-esteem and an internal locus of control attributed success to ability and failure to lack of effort as predicted. Those with low self-esteem and an external locus of control did not attribute failure to lack of ability, but they did attribute success to unstable factors. Of the 82 unemployed, 51 were followed up one month later when 24 had jobs while 27 remained unemployed. Those with jobs had, at the first interview, made stronger task difficulty attributions for being unemployed and stronger effort attributions for a previous success than had those who remained unemployed. It appeared that the successful group externalised their difficulty while taking credit for success. In the group as a whole lower G.H.Q. scores (fewer negative mental health symptoms) were obtained among those who made strong lack of effort attributions for failure. The G.H.Q. correlated positively and significantly with the number of job interviews attended and with age. The dilemma of an active job search strategy which was associated with lower well-being as well as a greater likelihood of obtaining work is discussed. Supplementary analyses, including detailed case descriptions, were used to explore the relationship between personality variables, demographic variables, work importance and measures of well-being. Recommendations arising out of the research are offered and the importance of perceived skill level (distinctiveness) in influencing the extent to which blame attaches to the unemployed themselves for being out of work is stressed.
Unemployment : its meaning and impact in contemporary society : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Psychology at Massey University
(Massey University, 1999) Cullen, Andrea Marjorie; Cullen, Andrea Marjorie
Unemployment is a continuing concern within Western society that has been linked to material deprivation, social isolation, restricted agency, lowered future aspirations, and a range of negative health consequences. This thesis investigated unemployment in the Hawke's Bay region. The objective was to gain an understanding of the impact of unemployment and its meaning to a sample of employed and unemployed respondents. In conducting this investigation it was important to set the historical and social context, because the meaning of unemployment, strategies for addressing it, and its impact are historically variable across different periods in New Zealand's history. Official definitions, public policies, and public conceptualisations of unemployment from the 1840s to the 1990s were examined, as a means of backgrounding this thesis. Two main frameworks for conceptualising and addressing unemployment were identified. The first relates to liberal ideologies about the free market, including the principle of less eligibility. The second reflects socialist ideologies about the need for state intervention to assist those who are unable to look after themselves. In further establishing the context for this thesis, a review of psychological research into unemployment from the 1930s to the present day revealed that the primary focus has been on its impact. It is argued that the impact of unemployment and the ways it is coped with vary according to factors such as people's perceptions of their situation. Therefore, there is a need for research into both the impact and meaning of unemployment. This thesis set out to contribute to the existing psychological literature by providing further evidence of the impact of unemployment and complementing this evidence with an analysis of the meaning of unemployment. A combination of both quantitative and qualitative techniques were utilised as part of a multimethod research design, which was grounded in two main studies. Study One involved a quantitative survey of 177 employed and unemployed participants on various psychological dimensions, including affective connotation (meaning), anxiety, relative deprivation, perceived social conflict, and values. This study had two main objectives: to provide an understanding of the psychological meaning of employment status in employed and unemployed groups; and to investigate whether interrelationships existed between employment status and various psychological dimensions. Overall, both employed and unemployed groups displayed similar patterns of response. These groups expressed values and interpreted target concepts relating to a person's employment status in a comparable manner. This may be owing to either a shift in public perceptions of the unemployed, where they are now seen in a more favourable light, or a self-report bias. However, there were some key differences between employed and unemployed participants' responses. The unemployed group reported significantly higher levels of relative deprivation, perceived social conflict, and anxiety. Unemployed participants' viewed themselves as being less competent and skilled, and reported living in more adverse circumstances than employed participants. Key psychological dimensions from Study One, such as the meaning of unemployment, relative deprivation, and perceived social conflict, along with additional dimensions were then investigated in a qualitative study. Study Two explored the social meaning systems unemployed people drew on to make sense of their situation and to explain the ways they live with unemployment. Twenty-six unemployed people took part in semi-structured individual interviews. Of this group, 21 also took part in one of three focus group discussions. This study focused on the experiences of the unemployed and the ways they made sense of the consequences of unemployment. Even though the findings were presented under two main categories, meaning and impact, unemployment was assigned meaning in terms of its impact as an unhealthy state. The unemployed's accounts provided complex and insightful explanations of the causes and consequences of unemployment. Participants generally resisted being labelled with negative stereotypes that stigmatise the unemployed as inactive dole bludgers. However, there was a tendency to draw on such stereotypes to stigmatise others and justify one's own legitimacy as a proactive member of society. Participants drew on a mix of individual and communal assumptions to make sense of unemployment, its consequences, and their situation in life. A prominent theme was financial hardship and the life struggles associated with life on the dole. Participants provided explanations of the ways they asserted themselves in the face of social stigma and persistent negative societal perceptions. In doing so they emphasised the ways in which unemployment restricts people's agency and can lead to health problems and social conflict. These two studies revealed how unemployment is predominantly an alienating and socially isolating experience. Common social belief systems within society still stigmatise the unemployed as lazy dole bludgers. This thesis supports calls for considering both material and psychosocial factors when exploring the consequences of unemployment and developing adequate responses. In light of the fact that there are no signs of a significant reduction in the level of unemployment, this thesis provides a timely reminder that social phenomena such as unemployment have very real consequences on people's lives. Emphasis needs to be placed on unemployment as both a social and an individual phenomenon as a means of reducing tendencies towards victim-blaming.
What's the value in 'boot camps' : means-end perspectives on motivational intervention in the outdoors : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Management at Massey University, Wellington, New Zealand
(Massey University, 2010) Maxwell, Robert James
Motivational intervention courses or ‘boot camps’ for long-term unemployed participants aim to increase self esteem, self confidence and motivation so as to improve employment options and/or outcomes for participants. In New Zealand, such programmes administered by Outward Bound (Catalyst course) and the Army (Limited Service Volunteers, LSV) involve intensive spells of disciplined instruction and vigorous physical activity. In popular terms they may be considered ‘Boot Camps’, and are consistent with the philosophy of changing behaviour through a ‘short, sharp shock’. This thesis evaluates these two outdoor motivational intervention programmes to determine their outcomes and identify the processes involved in producing them. Both programmes are attended by clients of the Ministry of Social Development, drawn from the long-term unemployed population. This study advances understanding of experiential education through the use of qualitative, interpretive research into how course outcomes are achieved, moving beyond simply measuring outcomes. The research design uses means-end theory applied within a phenomenological paradigm. The means-end method links course attributes to consequences and to the end values that participants attribute to course experiences. One LSV and two Outward Bound courses are evaluated with the data obtained through participant observation and semi-structured interviews at course end, and again at 6 months post course. This study is the first to focus on the specific population group attending motivational intervention courses, and found that the ‘boot camps’ increased participants’ self esteem, self confidence, self awareness and sense of belonging. These findings are similar to previous research on general enrolment outdoor experiential education courses. Specific course attributes including physical training, personal interactions, expeditioning, activity de-briefs, marching and time management were identified as being the most accountable for producing course outcomes. Means-end theory and participant interviews are found to be a good fit for the evaluation of outdoor experiential education courses. It links course attributes, consequences and end values and thus provides greater insight into the processes that participants identify with respect to specific course attributes that lead to course outcomes. For example, the course component of time management for the LSV participants had a strong direct link to the consequence of sense of achievement, which then resulted in links to the end value transference to work. This knowledge can be used by providers of motivational interventions to design courses that target particular outcomes by focusing on the specific attributes that have been identified in this study as being important in producing such outcomes.

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