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    The organisation of dairy farming in the Waikato, New Zealand
    (1931) Stephens, Frank Burcon
    The present study is an attempt to combine a descriptive account of the technical and financial organisation of Waikato Dairy Farms with an analytical discussion of the factors affecting efficient butterfat production. Management is perhaps the greatest need in the Dairying Industry today. While there is evident a "Desire to know" how to overcome the present difficulties, there is still a great deal of attachment to the routine of habit and custom. This fact is frequently lost sight of and the popular descriptions of farming in New Zealand generally err by discussing farming practice in terms of the best farmers. In the present essay an attempt is made to discuss things as they are and to indicate, where possible, the lines on which advance is being made. [From Preface]
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    Predicting spatiotemporal yield variability to aid arable precision agriculture in New Zealand : a case study of maize-grain crop production in the Waikato region : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Agriculture and Horticulture at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2020) Jiang, Guopeng
    Precision agriculture attempts to manage within-field spatial variability by applying suitable inputs at the appropriate time, place, and amount. To achieve this, delineation of field-specific management zones (MZs), representing significantly different yield potentials are required. To date, the effectiveness of utilising MZs in New Zealand has potentially been limited due to a lack of emphasis on the interactions between spatiotemporal factors such as soil texture, crop yield, and rainfall. To fill this research gap, this thesis aims to improve the process of delineating MZs by modelling spatiotemporal interactions between spatial crop yield and other complementary factors. Data was collected from five non-irrigated field sites in the Waikato region, based on the availability of several years of maize harvest data. To remove potential yield measurement errors and improve the accuracy of spatial interpolation for yield mapping, a customised filtering algorithm was developed. A supervised machine-learning approach for predicting spatial yield was then developed using several prediction models (stepwise multiple linear regression, feedforward neural network, CART decision tree, random forest, Cubist regression, and XGBoost). To provide insights into managing spatiotemporal yield variability, predictor importance analysis was conducted to identify important yield predictors. The spatial filtering method reduced the root mean squared errors of kriging interpolation for all available years (2014, 2015, 2017 and 2018) in a tested site, suggesting that the method developed in R programme was effective for improving the accuracy of the yield maps. For predicting spatial yield, random forest produced the highest prediction accuracies (R² = 0.08 - 0.50), followed by XGBoost (R² = 0.06 - 0.39). Temporal variables (solar radiation, growing degree days (GDD) and rainfall) were proven to be salient yield predictors. This research demonstrates the viability of these models to predict subfield spatial yield, using input data that is inexpensive and readily available to arable farms in New Zealand. The novel approach employed by this thesis may provide opportunities to improve arable farming input-use efficiency and reduce its environmental impact.
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    Planning to develop land returned under Treaty settlement in Waikato, Aotearoa New Zealand : an institutional ethnography : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Health at Massey University, SHORE & Whāriki Research Centre, Aotearoa New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2017) Livesey, Brigid Te Ao McCallum
    This research investigates planning to develop land returned as settlement for breaches of Te Tiriti o Waitangi (the Treaty of Waitangi). Using institutional ethnography methodology, I explore a case study of the relationship between an iwi authority, Te Whakakitenga o Waikato, and a local authority, Hamilton City Council. In 1995, significant areas of land were returned to Waikato-Tainui through Treaty settlement. This research focuses on processes to develop planning regulation for land owned by Waikato-Tainui at Te Rapa, site of ‘The Base’ retail development and Te Awa shopping mall, and Ruakura where an inland port and associated activities are proposed. Iwi planning documents describe a vision to develop land returned under Treaty settlement. Commercial property development to regain ‘economic sovereignty’ is a critical element in the ‘integrated development agenda’ for Waikato-Tainui. However, critical discourse analysis and intertextual analysis illustrate that this vision is not well-reflected in local government planning documents. Relations between Hamilton City Council and Waikato-Tainui have changed from generally adversarial in 2009 during planning processes to restrict development at Te Rapa through Variation 21, to more collaborative during planning processes to approve the Ruakura Plan Change in 2014. Complementing data from interviewing practitioners with analysis of texts created through these planning processes, I consider control, timing, and trust as key factors in this changing relationship. This research provides evidence for dual planning traditions in Aotearoa New Zealand. Communal ownership of land and inalienability are characteristics of land returned under Treaty settlement which have influenced development decisions made by Waikato-Tainui. Planners and the planning profession can ‘transform’ planning practices to create new relationships between local government and iwi authorities. Interviews suggest that crosscultural planning can be a challenging and emotional experience. Iwi planning documents articulate a vision for future relationships based on mana whakahaere (affirming Māori authority) and mātauranga Māori (valuing Māori knowledge). In response, I highlight the need for changes to the New Zealand Planning Institute Code of Ethics to support planners working to decolonise planning. I conclude by ‘mapping’ the institution of planning for Treaty settlement land, and identifying levers which planners can use to support Māori goals for land development and economic self-determination.
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    Appraisal of the environmental sustainability of milk production systems in New Zealand : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Science in Life Cycle Management at Massey University, Manawatū, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2016) Chobtang, Jeerasak
    Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) plays an important role in the environmental assessment of agricultural product systems, including dairy farming systems. Generally, an LCA study accounts for the comprehensive resource use and environmental emissions associated with the life cycle of a studied product system. The inventoried inputs and outputs are then transformed into different environmental impact categories using science-based environmental cause-effect mechanisms. There are different LCA modelling approaches (e.g. attributional LCA [ALCA] and consequential LCA [CLCA]) that can be used to address different research questions; however, there is currently no consensus on the most appropriate approach and when to use it. These LCA approaches require different types of data and methodological procedures and, therefore, generate different sets of environmental information which may have different implications for decision-making. In the present research, a series of studies utilising different LCA modelling approaches were undertaken of pasture-based dairy farming systems in the Waikato region (the largest dairy region in New Zealand). The purposes of the studies were to: (i) assess the environmental impacts and identify environmental hotspots of current pasture-based dairy farming systems, (ii) compare environmental hotspots between high and low levels of dairy farm intensification, (iii) investigate the environmental impacts of potential alternative farm intensification methods to increase milk productivity, and (iv) assess the environmental impacts of different future intensified dairy farming scenarios. Twelve midpoint impact categories were assessed: Climate Change (CC), Ozone Depletion Potential (ODP), Human Health Toxicity - non-cancer effects (Non-cancer), Human Health Toxicity - cancer effects (Cancer), Particulate Matter (PM), Ionizing Radiation - human health effects (IR), Photochemical Ozone Formation Potential (POFP), Acidification Potential (AP), Terrestrial Eutrophication Potential (TEP), Freshwater Eutrophication Potential (FEP), Marine Eutrophication Potential (MEP) and Ecotoxicity for Aquatic Freshwater (Ecotox). Firstly, the environmental impacts of 53 existing pasture-based dairy farm systems in the Waikato region were assessed using ALCA. The results showed that both the off-farm and on-farm stages made significant contributions to a range of environmental impacts per kg of fat- and protein-corrected milk (FPCM), and the relative contributions of the stages varied across different impact categories. Farms classified as high intensification based on a high level of farm inputs (i.e. stocking rate, level of nitrogen (N) fertiliser and level of brought-in feeds) had higher impact results than low intensification farms for 10 of 12 impact categories. This was driven mainly by the off-farm stage, including production of brought-in feeds, manufacturing of agrichemicals (e.g. fertilisers and pesticides), and transport of off-farm inputs for use on a dairy farm. The exceptions were the environmental indicators PM, POFP, AP and TEP; their results were determined mainly by ammonia emissions from the on-farm activities. Secondly, environmental consequences resulting from meeting a future increase in demand for milk production (i.e. 20% more milk production per hectare relative to that in 2010/11) by using different farm intensification scenarios for dairy farming systems in the Waikato region were assessed using CLCA. In this study, only technologies/flows that were actually affected by use of different intensification options to increase milk production were accounted for. The identified intensification methods were: (i) increased pasture utilisation efficiency, (ii) increased use of N fertiliser to boost on-farm pasture production, and (iii) increased use of brought-in feed (i.e. maize silage). The results showed that improved pasture utilisation efficiency was the most effective intensification option since it resulted in lower environmental impacts than the other two intensification options. The environmental performance between the other two intensification options varied, depending on impact categories (environmental tradeoffs). Thirdly, prospective ALCA was used to assess the environmental impacts of six prospective (future) dairy farming intensification scenarios in the Waikato region, primarily involving increased stocking rate, that were modelled to increase milk production per hectare by 50% in 2025. In this study, prospective (future) average flows that were derived from extrapolation were accounted for. The potential intensification scenarios were: (i) increased animal productivity (increased milk production per cow), (ii) increased use of mixed brought-in feed, (iii) improved pasture utilisation efficiency, (iv) increased use of N fertiliser to boost on-farm pasture production, (v) increased use of brought-in maize silage, and (vi) replacement of total mixed brought-in feed in the second scenario by wheat grain. The results showed that, apart from improved animal productivity which was considered the best option, improved pasture utilisation efficiency was the second environmentally-preferential option compared with other intensification options for pasture-based dairy farming systems in the Waikato region. There were environmental trade-offs between other intensification options. The present research demonstrated that pasture-based dairy farming systems in the Waikato region contribute to a range of environmental impacts. More intensive farming systems not only have increased milk productivity (milk production per hectare) but also increased environmental impacts (per kg FPCM) in most environmental impact categories. Farm intensification options associated with improved farm efficiency (e.g. animal productivity or pasture utilisation efficiency) are promising as they have lower environmental indicator results (per kg FPCM) compared with other intensification methods. Increased use of off-farm inputs (e.g. N fertilisers and brought-in feeds) increases some, and decreases other, environmental indicator results. Therefore, decision-making associated with choice of alternative farm intensification options beyond farm efficiency improvements will require prioritisation between different environmental impacts and/or focusing on the ability of key decision-makers to effect change (for example, by distinguishing between local and global activities contributing to environmental impacts). The present research has shown that different LCA modelling approaches can be used in a sequential manner to maximise the usefulness of environmental assessment. Initially, ALCA (based on current average flows) can be used to identify environmental hotspots in the life cycle of dairy farming systems. This will generate environmental information that can assist in selection of improvement options. Subsequently, the improvement options selected should be evaluated using CLCA (based on marginal flows). This will produce comparative environmental information resulting from implementing the selected improvement options, strategies or policies in relation to a non-implementation scenario, when the wider contribution of co-products is accounted for. Finally, prospective ALCA (based on future average flows) can be used to assess total or net environmental benefits.
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    Non market value of biodiversity on agricultural land by rural landowners : a case study : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Environmental Management at Massey University, Manawatu, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2014) Piddock, James Nugent
    The loss of biodiversity on agricultural land is of increasing concern, both in New Zealand and globally. In New Zealand, historically, that loss is largely a result of the clearing of lowland forests and the draining of wetlands for increased agricultural production. Biodiversity is a critical component of our natural environment and necessary for sustainable development, particularly for the ecosystem services (such as, soil stability, nutrient retention, and flood protection) it provides. However, it has too long been under-valued. The aim of this research is to use a stated preference approach, choice modelling, to determine the non-market value rural landowners place on biodiversity on agricultural land. It employs different attributes for biodiversity, and a payment vehicle of an annual contribution, for a 10-year period, into a council designated fund to which farmers can apply for funding to take actions to enhance indigenous biodiversity on their land. The focus of this study is the Waikato Region, due to its diversity of native flora and fauna and the pressures placed on it from the region's strong agriculture based economy. An online survey was used to survey rural landowners in the region. Usable responses were obtained from 146 respondents, three-quarters of whom operate their own farm and two-thirds of whom have indigenous biodiversity present on their farm. A latent class model was used to estimate non-market values, since revealed attribute non-attendance (or avoidance) had taken place. The results highlight the importance to farmers of ecosystem services provided by indigenous biodiversity, as those attending to all attributes were willing to pay toward maintaining current actions ($43.90/year for 10 years) or, for increasing actions to enhance ecosystem services ($59.65/year for 10 years). In contrast, however, they were willing to accept an annual payment ($49.22/year for 10 years) toward controlling possums and other pests. Other results were not clear-cut, making recommendations difficult. Perhaps a future study could investigate whether society as a whole places value on indigenous biodiversity being present on agricultural land, and whether there is a willingness, by society, to pay for this. Keywords: choice modelling, biodiversity, non-market valuation, agriculture, latent class model, Waikato region, attribute non-attendance. .
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    Appraisal of Collaborative Problem Solving (CPS) within a context of current Waikato principles and practices : a thesis presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Educational Psychology, Massey University, Albany, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2013) Dickinson, Carol Ann
    This research evaluated the Collaborative Problem Solving (CPS) model, an established evidence-based practice from the United States (Greene, 1998), within a Waikato context in New Zealand. Special education practitioners employed at the Ministry of Education (MOE) drew from MOE principles and practices, as well as their professional expertise as they reviewed and critiqued the CPS model. The study identified aspects of the CPS programme that could contribute to current Ministry practices and aspects which are incongruent with New Zealand MOE practice guidelines and/or the cultural context of Waikato. Outcomes of the project included a summary of existing evidence supporting the CPS model, a critique of its cultural relevance to the New Zealand context as well as, recommendations for how CPS practices might inform or strengthen the Ministry of Education’s (MOE) current model of collaborative problem solving practice.
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    Koorero tuku iho : waahine Maaori : voices from the embers of Rangiaowhia : a thesis presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master in Adult Education at College of Education, Massey University, Palmerston North
    (Massey University, 2013) Coromandel-Wander, Hazel
    When will the mokopuna stop inheriting the hara of Rangiaowhia? Koorero tuku iho, is based on oral traditions praxis of my kuia as ‘handed down’ by three generations of her whaanau, for her mokopuna. Her eyewitness account of the massacre at Rangiaowhia February 1864, ‘talks back’ to the oppressive power systems that brand the indigenous as guilty. “History can frequently dismiss whole groups of people as lost causes, or as irrelevant. Entire sections of society, usually the poor, the minorities, and the politically powerless are thereby obliterated from memory (Binney & Chaplin 1990:3)”. Ultimately, it is only through re-claiming, re-defining and re-storing of the principle of tino rangatiratanga that the hara can be lifted from Ngaati Apakura mokopuna. However, it is through the discursive practice of koorero tuku iho by and from Ngaati Apakura voices that the burden and prejudice can be brought out of obscurity into open dialogue with the Crown. This study is an indigenous history lesson on core taonga tuku iho praxis as handed down from grandmother to mokopuna in daily actions that seek to restore the balance. This is the legacy of the waahine Maaori intergenerational indigenous literacy’s that seek for indigenous justice and freedom from oppression.