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Item Conservation status and demographics of the Galapagos land iguana (Conolophus subcristatus) in the Galapagos Islands, Ecuador : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Masters of Natural Science in Conservation Biology, Massey University, New Zealand(Massey University, 2019) Kumar, KirtanaIn conservation biology, understanding the basic demography of populations across their range, provides opportunities to identify and prioritise management actions to improve the conservation of both, populations and of the species as a whole. The Galapagos land iguana or land iguana (Conolophus subcristatus) (endemic to the Galapagos Islands), is an ideal model to explore these ideas and to generate information that can assist its conservation. Currently, the species is classified as IUCN: Vulnerable. Land iguana populations are threatened by introduced species and habitat loss but the intensity of these threats varies between populations. The population sizes across the species range are partially known and suspected to relate to the presence/absence of introduced predators. Although demographic trends are virtually unknown, it is suspected that populations in disturbed areas have a lower recruitment of juveniles and limited population growth. Overall, these gaps in knowledge represent a challenge to a formal evaluation of the species’ conservation status. Historically, translocation of land iguanas to predator-free or predator-managed sites in the Galapagos Islands has played an important role for its conservation. Since the 1970s there have been calls for translocating land iguanas to Santiago Island, considered to harbour one of the largest land iguana populations until the early 1900s. Although the mechanism for the extinction of the Santiago Island population is not understood, it is most likely linked to habitat changes driven by humans and the effects of introduced predators, which are common denominators in significant iguana population declines on other islands around the world. Since the early 2000s, introduced predators have been eradicated on Santiago Island, and the possibility of reintroducing land iguanas there has resurfaced with greater intensity. While the habitat on Santiago Island is considered suitable for land iguanas, and the expertise to handle and transfer these organisms exists there are missing gaps in knowledge in particular: is the size of historically translocated populations comparable to undisturbed populations? What are the current population sizes of land iguana populations? and what are the effects of introduced predators on land iguana populations? This thesis addresses these gaps in land iguana demography by providing an update of the current conservation status, estimates of population size and an analysis of the effects of feral cats using historical data. I examined the effects of feral cats on two populations by comparing historical demographic data from cat-absent and cat-present populations. I found cat-present populations exhibited significantly different population structure and morphology to cat-absent populations, including significantly lower juvenile percentage indicating reduced juvenile recruitment as a result of juvenile depredation . Further, I studied a translocated population of land iguanas (North Seymour) and the most undisturbed land iguana population in one of the most active volcanoes worldwide; Fernandina Island. I estimate and compare population size to assist the planning of a reintroduction of the species to Santiago Island. Finally, I review the IUCN status of the species and conclude that the Vulnerable status is justified, primarily due to its limited geographic range and projected population decline. Four weeks before the completion of this thesis, the Directorate of the Galapagos National Park, Island Conservation and Massey University completed a transfer of over 2000 land iguanas to Santiago Island based on the information provided in this document. Although I could not incorporate the posttranslocation monitoring of land iguanas as part of my thesis, I discuss future research needs that will contribute to the restoration of Santiago Island, and the conservation of land iguanas across their range.Item Biodiversity and sustainable development : research exercise 31.499 in partial fulfilment of an M.Phil (Development Studies)(Massey University, 1997) Cowen, JustinEconomic development has had an increasingly detrimental effect on the environment. The current level of environmental impact by humans has been unprecedented for a single species in the history of the earth. In recent years there has been an increased realisation of the detrimental impact of our actions. Along with this realisation there has been an improvement in the understanding of the fundamental importance of the environment to the human society. The aim of this thesis is to examine the possibility of sustainable development, a concept which has arisen out of this increased awareness of the dynamic interconnectedness of the environment and development. A more environmentally destmctive development path will reduce the quality of the environment not just for today but in the future. This thesis will endeavoux to show that, if we are to achieve sustainability, we need to change our attitude towards the environment. To do this I will look at two broad perspectives of what is meant by sustainable development: technocentric and ecocentric (O'Riordan 1981: 1 ). Their primary difference is in their attitude towards the environment. This thesis will highlight the technocentric perspective as it has become the dominant development throughout the globe. It will primarily focus on critiquing technocentrism, demonstrating how this approach has resulted in widespread environmental degredation. In looking at the technocentric and ecocentric perspectives I shall attempt to show the significant role that knowledge systems can have in shaping the attitudes of a society. [From Introduction]Item The economic implications of a multiple species approach to bioeconomic modelling : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Applied Economics at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand(Massey University, 2002) Fleming, Christopher MarkHuman activity frequently leads to the endangerment or extinction of other species. While ecologists study the biological facets of species loss, economics, as the science of understanding people's behaviour, has been charged with investigating the incentives underlying the actions people take that lead to this loss. One approach economists have taken to gain this understanding is to develop models of endangered species that include both economic and biological components, known as bioeconomic models. While ecologists frequently note the importance of modelling entire ecosystems rather than single species, most bioeconomic models in the current literature focus only on a single species. This thesis addresses the economic significance of this assumption through the development of a series of multiple species models and demonstrates, using African Wildlife as an example, the importance of interrelationships and economic values to the survival of endangered species. From these models one can infer the conditions under which a single species model may be appropriate, at least in general terms. If species are independent, and either the opportunity cost of capital or the value of habitat is very low relative to the value of the species in question, then a single species model may yield results similar to that of a multiple species model. In contrast, if species are independent and these additional conditions are not met, a single species model may significantly underestimate both optimal stock levels and land allocation. However, species do not live independently; they interact with species with which they share habitat and, when species interact, the potential for misapplication of the single species framework is even greater. When species compete, the single species framework consistently produces higher stock levels than the multiple species framework, the greater the level of competition the greater the difference. In a predator-prey relationship, the relative values of predator and prey are critical to determining the outcome of the multiple species model. It is demonstrated that the inclusion of at least all economically valuable species in an ecosystem is important when constructing bioeconomic models. Using single species models where multiple species are economically significant could lead to misleading results and ultimately to incorrect policy decisions.Item Property rights and wildlife utilisation : generating incentives for conservation and economic development : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Economics at Massey University(Massey University, 1999) Bullen, PhilipThe accelerating depletion of natural resources (biological diversity) range from degraded ecosystems, endangered species, and loss of genetic resources. This depletion has raised concern over future human economic welfare among other things Conservation strategies have been implemented to preserve remaining biological diversity. The focus of this thesis is on conservation strategies to halt the loss of wild species. Protected areas and trade bans are the most recognised conservation measures. These strategies have their limitations however. This study will argue that increasingly the preservation of remaining wild species will be through economic incentives, specifically at the local community level. If we are serious about saving wild species, our behaviour towards the utilisation of wildlife must change. A recent innovative idea is to look upon conservation as a form of economic development. Strategies that can lead to the successful implementation of this concept include conservation partnerships that actively involve local communities especially in developing countries, and the commercial and sustainable use of wild species. Underlying the effectiveness and efficiency of these strategies are property right institutions and markets. Economic theory argues that natural resources will be protected only if direct economic benefits accrue to those most responsible for the care of these resources. In essence, the wise management of biological diversity must generate conservation and economic development benefits. This study examines and discusses the above issues.Item The future of indigenous fauna on private land : a case study of the habitat use of the small-scaled skink (Oligosoma microlepis) : a thesis in partial fulfilment for the degree of Master of Science in Conservation Biology at Massey University(Massey University, 2006) Teal, RowenaThe small-scaled skink (Oligosoma microlepis) is a small (≤67 mm SVL) endemic New Zealand lizard that is currently listed as vulnerable by the IUCN (1994). The species is diurnal and heliothermic, inhabiting rock outcrops and piles scattered throughout the central North Island. All of the ca. 17 populations are small, isolated and confined to private land. The Oligosoma spp. Recovery Plan (2002) outlines the need to obtain basic biological data on the species, determine threats and to conduct advocacy with landowners. The first part of my study was to obtain an understanding of the factors affecting O. microlepis' habitat use. This was achieved by using the programme PRESENCE to model site occupancy of the species as a function of site covariates, as well as detection probability as a function of sampling covariates. A total of 45 sites were used, spanning 25 k, on three stations in the Inland Patea district. Presence-absence data and sampling and site covariates were recorded using an active search method for lizards at each site. Results showed that detection probability of small-scaled skink was most affected by rock temperature, the time of day and month surveying was carried out. Site occupancy was correlated with three site covariates. The first important site covariate was distance to the nearest stock route. Probability of site occupancy decreased as the distance to the nearest stock route increased, suggesting that grazing may maintain lizard habitat by keeping rocks clear of vegetation. The second important site covariate was the presence of a tree on the site. No O. microlepis were found when a tree was present on the site, probably due to shade and predation by birds. Lastly, rock piles had a significantly higher occupancy than rock outcrops. This difference could be due to a number of factors, including competitive exclusion by common gecko (Hoplodactylus maculatus), which were abundant on rock outcrops as well as the biophysical nature of outcrops inhibiting thermoregulation. The second part of my study was to conduct more extensive habitat analysis using ordination plots and a classification tree, and this analysis expanded on these site covariates affecting occupancy. Sites were more likely to be occupied if the herbaceous plant Gingidia montana was absent, if the site was not in a gully, if the site had a north-northwest aspect, and the site was close to a public road. This information can potentially increase the efficiency in surveying new sites for O. microlepis. The third part of my study was to conduct environmental education with the farming community to create awareness of O. microlepis and conservation issues in the district. I did this by the sharing of knowledge, the application of skills and subsequent steps towards conservation management on their land. This study demonstrates how environmental education at a local community level is a worthwhile activity in any research on private land. Future research is still needed on current threats to O. microlepis (e.g., introduced predators), the long-term impact of farming, metapopulation dynamics, and effectiveness of management techniques for conserving the species.Item Colonists and colonials : animals' protection legislation in New Zealand, 1861-1910 : a thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in History, Massey University(Massey University, 1997) Aramakutu, EvaanThe protection of animals in New Zealand may be aptly described as a rapid transition. In less than fifty years, the emphasis of the animals' protection policy completely transformed. The forty-nine years between 1861 and 1910 were, therefore, the busiest and most turbulent period in animals' protection policy's complicated and engaging history. In 1861, the animals' protection policy firmly emphasised the protection of particular imported species. The vast majority of indigenous birds were, therefore, unprotected. Underpinning the protection of animals at that stage was the predominant colonist national sentiment, and their vision of the Britain of the South. By 1910, however, every indigenous bird was protected absolutely in New Zealand unless it was exempted by Order in Council. The reasons for the change in the animals' protection policy were many and varied, but underlying all of them was the colonial adoption of an indigenous national sentiment. Rather than the philosophy that underpinned the protection of animals for policy makers, therefore, it was the national sentiment of colonist and colonial society that was reconstructed. In that respect, the nineteenth-century emphasis that was placed upon the protection of imported species was no different to the development of a twentieth-century native bird conservation ethic.Item Ecology, epidemiology and evolution of enteric microbes in fragmented populations of the endangered takahe (Porphyrio hochstetteri) : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Veterinary Science at Massey University, Manawatū, New Zealand(Massey University, 2015) Grange, Zoe LorrainePathogenic diseases are increasingly recognised as a challenge to the conservation of wildlife. Complex host-pathogen relationships and transmission dynamics in wild populations can limit our understanding of how pathogens contribute to the decline and endangerment of wildlife. Endangered wildlife populations maintained in reserves present a unique opportunity to investigate wildlife host-microbe relationships in a controlled semi-natural environment where diversity, abundance and the movement of species are restricted. The aim of this study was to investigate the prevalence and molecular differentiation of enteric bacteria carried by endangered takahe (Porphyrio hochstetteri). Through the use of network analysis and molecular epidemiology, the study explored the effects of geographic isolation and translocation on the prevalence, transmission and evolution of Campylobacter and Salmonella spp. within fragmented populations of takahe. Translocation and conservation management has created a dynamic network of takahe populations which vary in their likelihood to maintain and transmit pathogens. My study suggests that range expansion following a significant bottleneck and intensive conservation management of takahe has had unforeseen consequences on microbial diversity. The management of takahe in different environmental settings has influenced the carriage of Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli. A newly discovered rail-associated Campylobacter sp. nova 1 was prevalent in all populations. However, more discriminatory whole genome analysis of isolates detected a significant biogeographic variation in C. sp. nova 1 genotypes. Possible explanations for the observed pattern include the spatial expansion and isolation of hosts resulting in reduced gene flow of Campylobacter spp. and allopatric speciation, and the presence of heterogeneous environmental attributes or cross-species transmission of Campylobacter spp. from sympatric reservoir hosts. An assessment of vertebrate reservoirs in an island ecosystem indicated cross-species transmission of Campylobacter spp. was not likely to be a factor contributing to the maintenance and phylogeographical distribution of Campylobacter spp. in takahe. This study was the first of its kind to explore microbial dynamics in a large proportion of a well-described but fragmented population of a wild bird. Results suggest historic and current management practices may be having unforeseen influences on enteric microbes, the consequences of which are unknown but could be detrimental to the health of translocated populations of takahe.Item The Kakapo (Strigops habrotilus, Gray, 1847) its food, feeding and habitat in Fiordland and Maud Island : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Zoology at Massey University(Massey University, 1977) Gray, Richard ScottAn extensive Wild Life Service conservation program to save the Kakapo parrot from extinction has permitted the collection of feeding data in Fiordland and on the sancturary, Maud Island in Pelorus Sound, between November 1974 and March 1977. Four expeditions, each of 4 to 6 weeks between January 1975 and March 1977 enabled my spending over 4 months in the Fiordland Kakapo areas and a further 6 weeks was spent in the Kakapo search on Stewart Island in July and August 1977. A total of 15 occupied Kakapo territories in Fiordland were found over the two and a half year period. Kakapo from 3 of these territories were moved to Maud Island and monthly visits between September 1975 and August 1976 enabled regular collection of droppings for faecal analysis study. A combined appraisal of feeding sign and faecal content, using cuticle analysis techniques has enabled a more accurate understanding of the Kakapo's diet and its seasonal variations to be determined. The mobility of the Kakapo could also be roughly estimated and on Maud Island it appeared the Kakapo were learning to obtain new foods. Investigation of faecal material has confirmed early reports that Kakapo are herbivorous. No insect or animal parts were found in fresh droppings. The variety of plants fed upon was extensive. In Fiordland 79+ species of herbs, grasses, shrubs and trees have been identified and on Maud Island 28+ species. Roots, rhizomes, twigs, leaves, buds, flowers, flower-stems, fruits and seeds are utilized. Feeding areas in Fiordland have all been found in the vicinity of the male Kakapo's track and bowl systems. These are generally located about tree line at approximately 1050 meters. The tree line in many areas is lower than expected, however, due to terrain and avalanche damage. Kakapo feeding areas, associated with track and bowl systems extend from 550 meters to 1200 meters above sea level. On Maud Island feeding sign and droppings found were concentrated on or close to recently excavated roads, although it was apparent the birds were covering an extensive area from the coast to the summit (350m). The Kakapo bill is adapted to crushing and extracting nutrients and enables a large proportion of fibre to be retained in the bill. The fibre is frequently squashed into a kidney shaped pellet which is expelled from the mouth. A preliminary investigation into nutrient values of Kakapo food plants is presented and it is suspected the birds select the most nutritious plant species and plant parts as food. On Maud Island the vegetation available as food for Kakapo in preliminary analyses appears to be of greater nutritional value than in Fiordland.Item Prey, predator, human and climate change interactions in the Himalaya, Nepal : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Conservation Biology at Massey University, Auckland, New Zealand(Massey University, 2013) Aryal, AchyutThis thesis evaluates prey-predator, climate change, and human-wildlife interactions in the Nepalese Himalayas and contains 12 scientific papers which were prepared from 2009-2012 to explain these interactions. The content of this thesis is categorised into four broad themes; wildlife ecology, human-wildlife conflict, the influence of climate change on human-wildlife interactions, and recommendations for developing strategies to balance wildlife conservation and human needs in Nepal. The findings summarized below based on their relevant themes. In the study of human wildlife conflict in the upper Mustang region, Nepal, I recorded a total of 1,347 km2 of pasture land utilised by the local people from six village development committees, 706 livestock animals were killed during the study period by predators (equivalent to US$44,213 every two years), and 75% of the total livestock predation was attributed to snow leopards. I also found that the movement of livestock drives the snow leopards to lower elevations and into closer proximit to villages. Rangelands are considered to be critical ecosystems in the Nepalese Himalayas and provide multiple ecosystem services that support local livelihoods. This study analyses the conflict over the use of rangeland by two villages in Mustang, Nepal. The conflict suggests that excessive demand for limited rangelands motivates local villagers to gain absolute control of the resources. In such contexts, external support should focus on enhancing the management and production of local foraging resources, which requires the establishment of local common property institutions to facilitate sustainable rangeland management. The northern Barandabhar Forest Corridor (BFC) in southern Nepal, which consists of 10,644 ha with 15 community forestry (3,184 ha) that connects Chitwan National Park to the Mahabharat range, was studied. BFC has the potential to contribute to the improvement of Nepal’s ecological integrity. We propose that the northern BFC should be managed via a 5 new participatory scheme, the Barandabhar Forest Management Council, to foster ecological integrity of the area while providing forest products to communities. The presence of brown bears in the Manasalu Conservation Area and Annapurna Conservation Area of Nepal, was confirmed. Results showed that brown bears are potentially distributed between 3800 m and 5500 m in the high mountainous region of Nepal, across an area of 4037 km2. Small mammals were the preferred prey of brown bears (75%) with marmots (Marmota himalayana; 46%) being the largest contributor to brown bear diet. Finally, a three stage brown bear conservation programme is recommended: (a) detailed research activities both inside and outside protected areas of Nepal (b) livelihood and conservation awareness support at local and national level (c) strengthening of the local capacity and a reduction in human-wildlife conflict in the region. The Nepalese Himalayas provide habitat for the endangered snow leopard (Panthera uncia) and its principal prey species, the blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur). A total of 939 Blue sheep were recorded at altitudes ranging from 3209 to 5498 m on slopes with gradients of 16–60° and aspects of 40°NE to 140°SE. The upper Mustang had the lowest population density of blue sheep recorded within their distribution range in Nepal (0.86 blue sheep/km2). It is estimated that the existing blue sheep population biomass of approximately 38,925 kg in the upper Mustang region could support approximately 19 snow leopards (1.6 snow leopards/100 km2). Habitat suitability analyses of snow leopards in Annapurna Conservation Area (ACA), Nepal indicated that an area of 3248 km2 was suitable for snow leopards. Genetics analysis of the collected scats were successfully genotyped (62%) using 6 microsatellite markers, and identified as having originated from five different individuals and suggested minimum home ranges of 89.4 km2 (male) and 59.3 km2 (female). Microhistological analysis of scats (n=248) 6 revealed that blue sheep are the primary prey species (63%) and that livestock contributed 18% of the snow leopard diet. The Hispid hare (Caprolagus hispidus) is one of the least studied endangered small mammal species in the world. The diet and habitat use of the hispid hare was studied at Shuklaphanta Wildlife Reserve (SWR), Nepal. The population density of the hispid hare was 5.76 individuals/km2. Hispid hares mostly prefer grasses (Saccharum spontaneum and Imperata cylindrica) and more that nineteen plants were indentified in their pellets. The Himalayan marmot (Marmota himalayana) was found to inhabit warmer valleys close to water resources in areas between 3200m and 5300m above sea level. Plant diversity was higher in the marmot habitat. Seventeen of plants were recorded in marmots scats over three seasons (summer, autumn and spring). Soil pH, organic matter and organic carbon were not significantly different in habitat occupied by marmots compared to area where marmots were absent. Phosphorus (P2O5) levels were significantly higher and potash (K2O) levels significantly lower in marmot burrow habitat. I found that the average annual temperature in the upper Mustang region has increased by 0.13 °C per year over the last 23 years. A predictive model suggested that the mean annual temperature will double by 2161 to reach 20 °C in the upper Mustang region. A reduction in suitable agricultural, grassland, and forest land was recorded. Furthermore, grasses and many shrub species are no longer found in abundance at higher elevations and consequently blue sheep move to forage at lower elevations which attracts snow leopard (Panthera uncia) from their higher elevation habitats to lower sites, where they encounter and depredate livestock. Increased crop raiding by blue sheep and depredations of livestock by snow leopards have adversely impacted the livelihood of local people.Item Monitoring strategies for the giant land snail Powelliphanta traversi tararuaensis (Gastropoda: Pulmonata: Rhytididae) : an assessment and exploration of current and future techniques : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Conservation Biology at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand(Massey University, 2011) Turner, Rachel LynnThe current monitoring strategy employed in the management of Powelliphanta traversi tararuaensis, a threatened species of giant carnivorous land snail from the Manawatu region of New Zealand, was used to assess the state of two remaining population strongholds – Shannon Forest and Ohau. Conservation targets were found to be amiss in the Shannon Forest population. Average abundance of live P. t. tararuaensis there measured well below the recovery goal set by the Powelliphanta Recovery Plan. A decline in recruitment was also noted for the Shannon population, with the average size of snails found increasing between the surveys, and a significant drop in numbers of smaller individuals. P. t. tararuaensis populations in Ohau were found to be healthier with respect to conservation goals, with two study areas within the site having live P. t. tararuaensis numbers well above the target for recovery. Questions were then asked about the current monitoring program for Powelliphanta, in particular concerning the apparent destructive nature of the methodology and the lack of collection of detailed data on life history parameters and population dynamics. I thus tested the effect of a monitoring event on the short-term behaviour of P. t. tararuaensis using a mark-recapture study design. The disturbance to the area associated with monitoring had an effect on the re-sighting probability of marked snails, with individuals less likely to be encountered in the days following the monitoring event. New techniques for monitoring Powelliphanta snails were then explored to address the short-fall in methods of gaining life history data in the current program. Attaching tags to the shells of P. t. tararuaensis for individual identification using certain adhesives was found to affect the foraging behaviour of wild rats. Loctite and Araldite glues should be used with caution in a field setting, as they may predispose marked snails to depredation by rats. An alternative method for individual snail recognition was then trialled, utilising natural marks on snail shells and a photographic database. It was discovered that individuals of P. t. tararuaensis could be recognised by naturally occurring shell variation, but the accuracy decreased over a six month time-frame as new marks were gained and old ones evolved. This thesis concludes that the current monitoring system for Powelliphanta could be improved, both in the type of data gained for assessing management and conservation goals, and in the lessening of impact on snail behaviour. Monitoring strategies for land snails would benefit from incorporation of a non-invasive mark-recapture approach, such as photographic identification. Such techniques would allow for more directed conservation action, without potentially negative impacts on Powelliphanta behaviour.