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Item The Effects of Cushioning Properties on Parameters of Gait in Habituated Females While Walking and Running(MDPI (Basel, Switzerland), 2025-01-23) Macdermid PW; Walker SJ; Cochrane D; Voloshin AFeatured Application: Understanding the interaction between running shoe properties and parameters of gait are somewhat scarce, particularly in female runners. This study demonstrates that contrasting energy absorption properties reduce kinetic variables associated with injuries in females while running, but not walking. The purpose of this study was to compare the mechanical properties of a non-cushioned minimalistic shoe and cushioned shoe during walking at 6 and running at 10 and 14 km∙h−1 in habituated female runners. Twelve habituated female runners completed two trials (cushioned shoe vs. minimalist shoe) with three within-trial speeds (6, 10, and 14 km∙h−1) in a counter-balanced design. Flexible pressure insole sensors were used to determine kinetic variables (peak vertical impact force, average loading rate, active vertical peak force, time to active peak vertical force, and impulse) and spatiotemporal variables (stride duration, cadence, ground contact time, swing time, and time to midstance). Cushioned running shoes exhibited greater energy absorption (690%), recovered energy (920%), and heat dissipation (350%). The cushioned shoes significantly reduced peak vertical impact (~12%) and average loading rate (~11%) at running speeds 10–14 km∙h−1. However, these effects were not observed during walking, nor did the cushioned shoes influence peak active force, impulse, stride duration, ground contact or swing time. Cushioned running shoes provide significant benefits in energy absorption, energy recovery, and heat dissipation, which decrease impact-related forces and loading rates in female runners without changing the spatiotemporal variables of gait.Item Does chronic oral contraceptive use detrimentally affect C-reactive protein or iron status for endurance-trained women?(Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of The Physiological Society and the American Physiological Society., 2023-07-24) Badenhorst CE; Govus AD; Mündel TPURPOSE: Chronic use of the oral contraceptive pill (OCP) is reported to increase C-reactive protein (CRP) levels and increase the risk of cardiovascular disease in premenopausal females. METHODS: A secondary analysis of data from two research studies in eumenorrheic (n = 8) and OCP (n = 8) female athletes. Basal CRP and iron parameters were included in the analysis. Sample collection occurred following a standardized exercise and nutritional control for 24 h. Eumenorrheic females were tested in the early-follicular and mid-luteal phases, and the OCP users were tested in quasi-follicular and quasi-luteal phases (both active pill periods). RESULTS: A main effect for group (p < 0.01) indicated that average CRP concentration was higher in OCP users compared with eumenorrheic females, regardless of the day of measurement within the cycle. Results demonstrate a degree of iron parameters moderation throughout the menstrual cycle that is influenced by basal CRP levels; however, no linear relationship with CRP, serum iron, and ferritin was observed. CONCLUSIONS: Basal CRP values were consistently higher in the OCP group despite participants being in a rested state. These results may indicate a potential risk of cardiovascular disease in prolonged users of the OCP when compared to eumenorrheic female athletes.Item Measurement error of self-paced exercise performance in athletic women is not affected by ovulatory status or ambient environment(American Physiological Society, 2021-11) Zheng H; Badenhorst CE; Lei T-H; Muhamed AMC; Liao Y-H; Amano T; Fujii N; Nishiyasu T; Kondo N; Mündel TMeasurement error(s) of exercise tests for women are severely lacking in the literature. The purpose of this investigation was to 1) determine whether ovulatory status or ambient environment were moderating variables when completing a 30-min self-paced work trial and 2) provide test-retest norms specific to athletic women. A retrospective analysis of three heat stress studies was completed using 33 female participants (31 ± 9 yr, 54 ± 10 mL·min−1·kg−1) that yielded 130 separate trials. Participants were classified as ovulatory (n = 19), anovulatory (n = 4), and oral contraceptive pill users (n = 10). Participants completed trials ∼2 wk apart in their (quasi-) early follicular and midluteal phases in two of moderate (1.3 ± 0.1 kPa, 20.5 ± 0.5°C, 18 trials), warm-dry (2.2 ± 0.2 kPa, 34.1 ± 0.2°C, 46 trials), or warm-humid (3.4 ± 0.1 kPa, 30.2 ± 1.1°C, 66 trials) environments. We quantified reliability using limits of agreement, intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC), standard error of measurement (SEM), and coefficient of variation (CV). Test-retest reliability was high, clinically valid (ICC = 0.90, P < 0.01), and acceptable with a mean CV of 4.7%, SEM of 3.8 kJ (2.1 W), and reliable bias of −2.1 kJ (−1.2 W). The various ovulatory status and contrasting ambient conditions had no appreciable effect on reliability. These results indicate that athletic women can perform 30-min self-paced work trials ∼2 wk apart with an acceptable and low variability irrespective of their hormonal status or heat-stressful environments. NEW & NOTEWORTHY This study highlights that aerobically trained women perform 30-min self-paced work trials ∼2 wk apart with acceptably low variability and their hormonal/ovulatory status and the introduction of greater ambient heat and humidity do not moderate this measurement error.Item Comparison of electrolyte levels, osmolality and immune function markers in blood and/or saliva, urine, and sweat, in resting and exercising males and females : Master of Health Science (Bioscience)(Massey University, 2021) Kandeepan, Amalini ChithraBackground: The gold standard method to measure physiological markers to monitor athletes’ training responses is to utilise blood samples. However, this method is invasive, requires a skilled technician and specific medical equipment for collection. Sports and exercise studies are based mostly on only male participants, and a few with males and females combined without acknowledging the sex differences. The aim of this study was to investigate differences in electrolyte and osmolality levels in blood, saliva, urine and sweat, and immunoglobulin A (IgA) levels in blood and saliva, between males and females. This study also aimed to study the changes in electrolyte and osmolality levels in blood, saliva, urine and sweat, and IgA levels in blood and saliva over time while exercising. A further aim was to explore relationships between electrolyte and osmolality levels in blood (gold standard) and saliva, urine and sweat, and IgA levels in blood and saliva, at rest and during exercise, as an alternative strategy to overcome the limitations of blood collection, particularly in a sports setting. Methods: Blood, saliva, urine and sweat were collected to measure electrolyte, osmolality and IgA levels from 20 healthy volunteers (12 males and 8 females), who participated in a cross-over design trial that involved a resting and exercising trials. The exercise protocol involved participants continuously cycling at 70% peak power for 90 min and body fluids were collected pre, during and/or post-exercise. Results: During exercise, significant differences (P<0.05) were found in serum Na+ and Cl-, salivary K+, urinary Na+ and sweat osmolality levels between males and females. Among males, there was a significant increase in serum Cl- levels at 30 min and 60 min (P<0.001) of the exercising trial, and among females, a significant decrease in serum Na+ level post-exercise (P=0.020) and increase in serum Cl- at 60 min (P<0.05), compared to pre-exercise levels. There were no sex differences for some analytes (serum K+ and osmolality, salivary Na+, Cl- and osmolality, urine K+, Cl- and osmolality, sweat Na+, Cl- and K+) and male and female data were combined for subsequent analysis. Serum K+ analysis (combined data) showed a significant increase serum K+ levels at 30 min (P<0.001) and 60 min (P<0.001) of the exercising trial. In urine, there was a significant increase in K+ levels (combined data) at 90 min and 120 min (P=0.024) compared to pre-exercise level. There was a strong positive correlation between serum and salivary K+ at 60 min (r=0.714, P=0.047) among exercising females, and a positive correlation between serum and salivary IgA (combined data) pre-exercise (r=0.445, P=0.49), 60 min (r=0.489, P=0.029), and post-exercise (r=0.513, P=0.016). Conclusion: These findings show that when studying changes in some biomarkers (i.e., serum Na+, Cl-, salivary K+, urine Na+ and sweat osmolality) during exercise, male and female participants’ results should not be pooled. The presence of positive correlations between serum and salivary IgA levels at multiple timepoints of the resting and exercising trials is promising. It opens the possibility of using saliva samples as indirect measures to predict serum IgA levels in athletes, thereby overcoming the requirement of a blood draw, which is technically demanding, invasive, stressful, and disruptive when exercising.Item The effect of COVID-19 restrictions on physical activity levels and mental well-being in adult females living in New Zealand : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Nutrition and Dietetics, Massey University, Albany, New Zealand(Massey University, 2022) Awsi, HayaBackground: Previous research has suggested positive associations between physical activity (PA), mental health (MH) and well-being, however the current literature also suggests that females are less active than males. With the arrival of Coronavirus (COVID-19), containment strategies were implemented to minimise the global spread of COVID-19, with varying degrees of physical containment and social isolation. These containment strategies have impacted individuals’ ‘normal’ daily routines and social lives, changed the way we work and reduced opportunities in typical avenues of PA including gyms, recreational facilities and sport. The impact of such restrictions on PA levels in females, and the effect on MH and well-being has not been described in the research to date. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to understand the effect of the New Zealand Government’s COVID-19 containment strategies on adult females’ PA and mental well-being. The researchers also sought to identify factors that influenced PA participation during these periods of social isolation and physical containment. Methods: Adult females residing in New Zealand (n = 1504; mean ± SD : age 48 ± 14 years, 83.4% New Zealand European) were recruited through a combination of convenience and snowball sampling and completed two amalgamated anonymous online surveys during Level 4 (L4) lockdown and Level 2 (L2) restrictions (Qualtrics; Survey 1 - 10-29th April 2020; Survey 2 - 5-18th June 2020) to assess PA via the International Physical Activity Questionnaire – short form (IPAQ-SF), MH via the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales-9 (DASS-9) and well-being via the World Health Organization Five Well-Being Index (WHO-5). PA level was classified as high (≥3000 MET·min·wk⁻¹), moderate (≥600 to 2999 MET·min·wk⁻¹) or low (˂600 MET·min·wk⁻¹). Factors that influenced PA participation were assessed as to whether they had no influence or some influence on PA participation. Results: Our participants were sufficiently physically active to meet the WHO and New Zealand PA guidelines, and more met the PA guidelines during L4 (94.1%) than pre COIVD-19 (79.4%) or during L2 (85%). Although PA was higher during L4, sitting time was also significantly higher when compared to L2 (449 ± 169 vs 426 ± 189 min·wk⁻¹). Well-being scores (WHO-5) were higher at L4 (59 ± 20) than at L2 (57 ± 20). DASS-Anxiety scores were lower at L4 (0.5 ± 1.1) than at L2 (0.6 ± 1.2), whereas DASS-Depression and -Stress scores were higher at L4 (Depression 1.9 ± 1.8, Stress 1.9 ± 1.6) than at L2 (Depression 1.6 ± 1.7, Stress 1.7 ± 1.6). Compared to those who participated in lower levels of PA (according to IPAQ classification), those who participated in higher levels of PA had higher WHO-5 scores at both L4 (66.3 ± 19.3, p < 0.001) and L2 (62.9 ± 19.6). The high IPAQ group also had lower DASS-Depression, -Anxiety and -Stress scores ([1.5 ± 1.6, p < 0.001][0.3 ± 0.9, p < 0.001][1.6 ± 1.5, p < 0.001]) compared to those in the low group. The major factors that influenced PA participation were time available, working situation and MH. Conclusions: These results support previous findings on the positive association between PA, MH and well-being in females and illustrates the importance of maintaining adequate PA levels during times of mental unease, such as during a global pandemic or periods of social isolation. Governments and public health advisers are encouraged to use the findings and recommendations in this report to encourage and promote PA in the event a situation such as COVID-19 was to arise again in the future in order to best preserve the mental well-being of females and other New Zealanders.