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    Sexual pleasures and dangers : a history of sexual cultures in Wellington, 1900-1920 : a thesis presented in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts by thesis only in History at Massey University
    (Massey University, 1998) Gillingham, Mary
    This thesis examines sexual cultures between 1900 and 1920. It is based on court records of trials for 'sex crime' in the Wellington Supreme Court district, which covered the lower north island. Although sex crimes were an extreme manifestation of sexual practice, and court records represent only partial and constructed accounts of it, the sources can provide insight into attitudes toward sexuality in the past. In this thesis, a crime is posited as an 'extraordinary moment', capable of illuminating a variety of cultural beliefs about sexuality. Victims, their families, the accused men, criminal justice authorities and many others expressed views about codes of sexual behaviour in response to sex crimes. Combined, they form a multi-layered and, at times, contested grid of understandings about sexual mores. This thesis is focused on the reconstruction of these codes of sexual behaviour. To do this, a case study method has been employed which traces the construction of sexuality by individuals and within the courts. The possibilities of sexual pleasure and sexual danger - autonomy and victimisation - framed the meaning attached to sexual encounters by the parties involved, and by others. Such understandings were predominantly shaped by the variables of age and gender. Very young children lacked sufficient sexual knowledge to identify a sexual encounter as either sexually pleasurable or dangerous; they labelled it a physical attack. By adolescence, girls and boys were increasingly sexually aware. For them, and for adults, sexual experiences were characterised by the possibility for sexual pleasure or danger, or a mix of the two. This potential for sexuality to be experienced as pleasure shaped observers' understandings of codes of sexual behaviour. Observers often conflated sexual maturity with consent: childhood was predominantly constructed as a time of sexual innocence and adulthood as times of sexual activity and agency. But codes of sexual behaviour were also mediated by gender. Gendered constructions of character shaped self-representations and observers' understandings of sexual mores. While the double standard of sexual morality set the backdrop for the understanding of sexual mores in the wider Wellington area during the early twentieth century, there were considerable variations in levels of acceptance of it. This thesis examines constructions of sexuality in relation to children, adolescents, and adults of both sexes.
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    Hard times? : demographic change and the 1930s depression in New Zealand : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Philosophy in History at Massey University
    (Massey University, 1991) Marsden, Lucy E
    The 1930s depression is well established in both the historiography and the popular consciousness in New Zealand as a major event with wide-reaching consequences. In this thesis New Zealand demographic data relating to marriages, fertility and mortality are examined for evidence of interruptions that can be attributed to the effects of the economic downturn associated with the 1930s depression. The conclusion reached is that while some interruptions are discernible, they are essentially slight and of short duration. This raises the possibility that the depression did not in fact have a very severe impact in New Zealand. Another possibility is that the relationship between economic circumstances and demographic behaviour may no longer be close, an argument that would seem to be supported by the inconsistency of trends over time, and in other English-speaking countries studied. Data relating to the incomes of five groups are then examined. The evidence is of a wide diversity of financial experience during the depression, with a marked effect on many, particularly the least skilled, the owners of small farms and other small businesses, and those already towards the lower end of the economic scale. In addition, it is shown that the cuts in wage rates and pensions were in general not a major factor in reducing real incomes, which suggests the relative importance in this of unemployment. Statistics relating to unemployment are then analysed. They support the findings regarding income, since the least skilled were the worst affected. It is concluded that while the scale of unemployment in the 1930s was an anomaly in this country, the period of severe unemployment was relatively short compared with that experienced by some other countries. In respect of the groups most likely to suffer unemployment, the depression was an intensification of the normal situation rather than an anomaly. Some possible reasons are suggested for the lack of correlation between demographic and economic trends, and for the prevalence of the belief that the depression was a "community trauma" in this country.
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    History the young should learn? : To what extent did the teaching of history in New Zealand post-primary schools, measured by examination questions, their content, and teacher activity, reflect changes in New Zealand between 1945 and 1988? : a thesis presented in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in History at Massey University
    (Massey University, 2011) Body, Edward William
    The study of History in New Zealand post-primary schools between 1945 and 1988 covers a period of changes in national life demographically, socially, politically, economically, and especially in regard to views on Maori/Pakeha relations. Whether those changes were reflected in the way History was taught and examined is considered through analysis of official and local syllabuses and examination questions. In order to provide a setting for the analysis, reasons for teaching the subject are considered, together with any constraints placed upon that teaching by influences of politicians and parents outside the classroom. The way in which students absorb history from their parents, their peers, the media, and their community, as well as being taught it in the classroom, is considered in order to provide a benchmark for the relevance of History as a subject. In particular, as fresh interpretations of the past, together with developing controversies over Maori/Pakeha relations, the place of the Treaty of Waitangi, the role of women in society, and other community concerns appear, the question arises as to whether these became part of History as a subject. Attention is given to the way in which the new subject, 'Social Studies' was accepted by teachers, parents, schools and politicians, and how it introduced students to History. External examinations provide a source for assessing their connection with societal changes and concerns. In particular how long did it take, if at all, for Maori/Pakeha relations as debated in society to be included in questions asked in the examinations? Former teachers provide information as to teaching methods, the way changes were incorporated in local curriculum, and resources used. An assessment is made of student reaction to Social Studies and History as classroom subjects. Although the study concentrates on the period between 1945 and 1988, the exercise concludes with a brief review of the Social Studies/History curriculum since 1988 noting continuity or otherwise from the period studied.