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    Movements and co-occurrences of white sharks (Carcharodon carcharias) at Stewart Island, New Zealand : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Conservation Biology at Massey University, Albany, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2025) Shale, Hannah
    Our understanding of the fine-scale movements and behaviours of white sharks (Carcharodon carcharias) at aggregation sites is limited, yet it is central to conservation management and mitigating human-shark conflicts. This thesis examined traditionally understudied behaviours, namely individual variation in movements and sociality, to better understand the fine-scale habitat use of white sharks at Stewart Island, an aggregation site in southern New Zealand. Bayesian statistical modelling and social network analysis were used to analyse an acoustic telemetry dataset published by Francis et al. (2015), consisting of detections of 22 tagged subadult and adult white sharks by 15 acoustic receivers deployed northeast of Stewart Island during April-June 2011. The northern Titi Islands were a hotspot for white shark activity, with the highest estimated probability of occurrence (0.60) and accounting afor 89.4% of co-occurrences. Chapter 2 revealed substantial individual variation in movement patterns, with sharks exhibiting unique ‘preferences’ towards particular receivers, possibly a result of size-related behaviours like variable feeding strategies and competitive exclusion. Chapter 3 found no clear social structure and weak associations among white sharks in this study, indicating that behaviour at aggregation sites is not socially driven. That said, sharks with greater differences in body size tended to form stronger associations. This is possibly a result of smaller sharks, being considered less adept to hunting pinnipeds, associating with larger and more experienced conspecifics to exploit successful kills or to benefit from social learning. Both chapters also identified the potential influence of shark cage diving operations on the occurrences and co-occurrences of white sharks at the northern Titi Islands, particularly East Edwards Island. This thesis highlights the importance of considering white shark behaviour to obtain accurate predictions and estimates of their distribution and abundance. Incorporating measures for individual variation substantially improved model predictions of shark occurrence, and studying sociality revealed aggregations of up to seven individuals at Edwards Island. As aggregations increase the risks of fisheries-related mortality, Edwards Island should be considered for conservation efforts, such as seasonal fishing restrictions. This thesis also recommends the inclusion of individual variation in ecological modelling and further investigation of social behaviour.
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    Female masculinisation and reverse sexual dimorphism in the North Island Brown Kiwi (Apteryx mantelli) : a study using wild and captive birds : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Zoology at Massey University, Manawatū, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2024) McLeod, Caitlin
    While sexual dimorphism is widely known in birds, little is known about when it is reversed. Species with reversed sexual dimorphism and/or sex roles often have females that show masculinisation in deviation from traditionally dimorphic pathways. This study investigates the endocrine profile of both male and female North Island brown kiwi across the breeding and non-breeding season as well as captive and wild status. Analysis of these profiles reveals androstenedione as a hormone of interest in female kiwi masculinisation, as well as significant differences between the endocrine profiles of birds in captivity from those in the wild. This study also describes the courtship behaviour of pairs of brown kiwi in the wild, adding nuance to our understanding of sexual dynamics between these birds.
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    Intraspecific and interspecific interactions between Argyrodes antipodianus, a kleptoparasitic spider, and its New Zealand hosts : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Zoology at Massey University, Albany, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2025) Cooper, Daniel
    Kleptoparasitism is a common foraging strategy in which one animal steals resources from another. Kleptoparasitism is therefore an important but often overlooked aspect of ecosystem dynamics. Ecosystem processes can be impacted by the interactions between invertebrate kleptoparasites and their hosts. One such interaction is that of the kleptoparasitic spider, Argyrodes antipodianus, common name “The Dew Drop spider” is native to Australia and introduced to New Zealand, which kleptoparasitises several species of web-building spiders. In my thesis, I test how A. antipodianus interacts with its New Zealand hosts and conspecifics. Firstly, I conducted a natural history survey to determine which hosts A. antipodianus commonly kleptoparasitise and how many A. antipodianus can kleptoparasitise a single host. I also tested whether the presence of A. antipodianus influenced the likelihood of a host abandoning its web and identified factors that influence kleptoparasitism by A. antipodianus (Chapter Two). I then investigated whether A. antipodianus can detect, recognise and are attracted to chemical cues from potential hosts and conspecifics (Chapter Three). Finally, I investigated the effects of kleptoparasitism by A. antipodianus on the fitness of their hosts and conspecifics (Chapter Four). I found that A. antipodianus kleptoparasitises the knobbled orb weaver Socca pustulosa more often than the New Zealand sheet web spider Cambridgea foliata. I also found that A. antipodianus tended to kleptoparasitise hosts alone, rather than in groups. Large host webs and host site fidelity both positively correlated with the presence of A. antipodianus in host webs. I did not find evidence that A. antipodianus responded to airborne chemical cues released by potential hosts or conspecifics. My results indicate that while A. antipodianus do not kleptoparasitise C. foliata well under lab conditions, there is little evidence to date that the presence of A. antipodianus negatively affect the foraging success of C. foliata. This suggests that interactions between A. antipodianus and its hosts differ with host species. I suggest that further research is needed to determine whether the relationship between A. antipodianus and C. foliata is kleptoparasitic, kleptobiotic or commensal.
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    A behavioural analysis of contest and predation performance in the Australian bronze jumping spider (Helpis minitabunda) (Koch, 1880) (Araneae: Salticidae) : a thesis in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Biological Science at Massey University, Albany, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2025) Cox, Dabria
    Whole-organism performance encompasses the ability of an individual to perform ecologically significant tasks, including foraging, competition and reproduction. Performance is shaped by environmental influences, physiology, morphology, and behaviour. While there has been a lot of research into individual components of performance, fewer studies have investigated how components of performance might interact. In my thesis, I test whether predation and contest performance interact in the jumping spider Helpis minitabunda (Koch, 1880) (Araneae, Salticidae). In Chapter Two, I quantified the contest behaviour of H. minitabunda, examining juvenile-juvenile, female-female and male-male contest performance in controlled conditions. I identified patterns in contest escalation and tested how size influences contest outcomes. I found that contests in H. minitabunda consist of three escalating phases: the assessment, display and contact phase. I found that juveniles, females and males were equally likely to start the assessment phase. However, males were more likely to escalate into the display phase than females or juveniles, and both females and males were more likely to initiate the contact phase than juveniles. Size differences between opponents did not influence contest outcome. Juvenile assessment strategies most closely match the mutual assessment strategy. However, the assessment strategies of males and females did not match any traditional assessment model. My results suggest that there are differences in agonistic behaviour at different developmental stages in H. minitabunda. In Chapter Three, I assessed the predation behaviour of H. minitabunda in a standardised model prey assay and a voracity assay to quantify predation performance. I found a correlation between latency for the spider to emerge and prey capture success. However, there was no relationship between latency to first prey capture and the number of prey caught. This suggests that predatory traits are shaped by both personality traits and contextual cues. In iii Chapter Four, I tested whether predation and contest performance is correlated in H. minitabunda. I assayed predatory behaviour using a voracity assay, and contest behaviour using a mirror assay, both of which can be used as measures of aggression. I found no direct correlation between predation and contest performance. However, body condition strongly influenced voracity, despite controlling recent feeding history. This suggests that predation and contest performance rely on different traits for performance success. My results offer insights into how behaviour, physiology and morphology interact to shape performance in different ecological tasks in the jumping spider H. minitabunda.
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    Who goes there? : an analysis of North Island brown kiwi (Apteryx mantelli) vocal anatomy, vocalisations, and associated behaviours : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Zoology at Massey University, Manawatū, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2025) Urquhart, Liam
    This thesis explores individual variations in the vocal tract, vocalisations, and calling behaviour of the North Island brown kiwi (Apteryx mantelli). Kiwi are cryptic, nocturnal birds and are commonly monitored using acoustic methods – either manual call counts, or automated field recordings. Kiwi are loud callers with males and females producing very different calls. The number of times an individual bird calls per night varies, therefore turning call rates into estimates of population abundance is challenging and thus call counts fall short of estimating population numbers. This thesis aims to improve the knowledge we have of kiwi vocal behaviour using two approaches: (i) examining and describing for the first time the complete vocal tract of kiwi looking for differences between the sexes that could explain the different sounds they produce, and (ii) attempting to identify individuals through call variables obtained through multiple manual and automated call recordings. I also utilised calls shared between multiple recorders in an area to triangulate their location and identify a trend in call location selection. I investigated this to link calling behaviour to calling purpose, as the close proximity of kiwi nests on Ponui Island may influence calling for nest defence. Anatomical analysis of six brown kiwi (male = 3, female = 3) revealed a considerable difference in lateral labium area between the sexes (male = 2.43 mm2 ± 1.1, female = 1.19 mm2 ± 0.95), though this was not statistically significant (Mann-Whitney U test: n = 6; p = 0.3827), likely influenced by a small sample size. The syrinx was of the tracheobronchial type, which was larger in females (length = 8.98mm ± 2.78; width = 9.24mm ± 0.96), than in males (length = 6.13mm ± 0.8; width = 8.51mm ± 0.47). The tongue was spoon-like with a cartilaginous tip, and the oropharyngeal cavity contained two pairs of pharyngeal folds posterior to the glottis and choana. Call recordings, collected passively from 29 recorders near nine nests on Ponui Island and manually from six males, were analysed using k-means clustering to assess individual call distinctiveness. Results indicated that individual calls could not be reliably classified (percentage of correct identifications = 9%) using the selected call variables. Choice of calling location was examined using a three-tiered call quality ranking system. I evaluated call quality based on the number of harmonics visible in the call recording, which correlates with distance between calling bird and the recorder. Using a negative binomial GLM I found that altitude was not a predictive factor in site selection; however, high elevation sites functioned as good listening vantage points for the acoustic recorders, with higher ranked calls significantly correlated with increasing altitude. These findings highlight important considerations for future research. The differences in the sound generation source between the sexes highlights a potential source of the brown kiwi's sexually dimorphic calls, however, the degree of neuromuscular control of call production must be investigated. Additionally, utilising syllable (a distinct segment of harmonics in a bird’s call) variables for individual identification is paramount as they seem to be more informative than using call (the full vocalisation) variables alone, thus potentially providing more evidence for vocal individuality in kiwi. More time is needed for both studies to provide informative results to account for limitations in sample sizes and to account for seasonal variability of kiwi calls. Addressing these challenges could improve passive acoustic monitoring techniques for kiwi and other cryptic nocturnal species.
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    Assessing rake mark ontogeny to investigate social aggression in common dolphins (Delphinus delphis) in Aotearoa New Zealand : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Zoology at Massey University, Albany, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2024) Crisp, Hannah R.
    Aggressive competition can impact resource allocation, social structure, and reproductive success in social species. Rake marks, semi-permanent parallel scars from teeth raking across the dermis of another individual, indicate delphinid social aggression. When examined alongside ontogeny, demographic traits, and position, rake marks can inform social dynamics, and potentially health, in delphinids. The majority of existing rake mark studies have been field based and often lack sex, age, total body length (TBL), body condition and reproductive context. Here, I analysed rake marks on common dolphins (Delphinus delphis) examined postmortem between 2006-2024 (n = 102) in Aotearoa New Zealand. To account for skin loss and surface area variation, a zero-inflated generalised linear mixed model assessed rake mark occurrence (probability of rake density > 0) and prevalence (rake density, rm/dm² ) across the body (n = 89; dorsal/ventral, cranial/caudal, left/right), inferring potential confrontation, avoidance, and lateralisation. Zero-inflated generalised linear model was used to assess rake mark occurrence and prevalence with sex, age, TBL, sexual maturity, and body condition (n = 89), as well as female reproductive status (n = 51). Females demonstrated higher rake mark prevalence, but lower occurrence than males, possibly due to infrequent but severe aggressive sexual coercion. Males may engage in frequent intrasexual competition for mates. Resting mature females exhibited higher rake mark prevalence and occurrence than immature and pregnant and/or lactating females, likely attributed to reproductive availability and heightened sexual coercion. Rake mark occurrence and prevalence increased with greater TBL, possibly due to the increased surface area available to receive rake marks. Larger male body size, with a pronounced post-anal hump, may signal dominance, resulting in frequent severe aggression. Sexual maturity, age, and body condition displayed no relationship with rake occurrence or prevalence. However, biotic and abiotic factors may influence dolphin skin healing and rake mark longevity, which potentially inhibited the detection of existing relationships. These results provide first insights to how ontogeny may influence rake mark scarring in common dolphins, and the inferred context of the interactions that led to these rake marks.
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    Development of a theoretical approach for investigating the occurrence of boredom in animals : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Veterinary Science at Massey University, Manawatū, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2024-12-27) Heslop, Morgan Victoria
    Many domestic and captive wild animals across the globe are kept under highly constrained conditions, and there has been a growing concern that boredom might represent a major source of welfare compromise for these animals. To understand how significant an impact animal boredom represents, there is first a need to improve understanding of what boredom is and how it can be recognised. The aim of this thesis is to systematically examine the concept of boredom and how it can be recognised in animals kept under human management. This investigation begins by reviewing current knowledge of boredom in humans, culminating in the presentation of a framework that demonstrates the relationships between the environmental antecedents, cognitive and physiological correlates, social and cultural features and behavioural outcomes of self-reported boredom. In humans, boredom is a temporally fluid emotion that is thought to function as a goal-switching signal, occurring when there is a mismatch between the availability of cognitive resources and environmental demands on those resources. The specific cognitive and behavioural changes associated with boredom are expected to change over time, but the pattern of these changes is not yet well characterised in humans, making it challenging to determine when to look for expected responses in animals. The framework is then used to identify which aspects of boredom are measurable and manipulable to systematically investigate boredom in animals. While various correlates are theoretically measurable, the most promising measures of boredom are behavioural; three behavioural strategies are expected to occur in response to boredom, characterised as goal-switching, goal-perseverance, and non-goal-related behaviour. Manipulations to increase the likelihood of boredom-related behavioural outcomes involve altering either the availability of the subject’s cognitive resources or the environmental demand, to produce a mismatch. A novel model is introduced to describe the predicted relationships between the expected behavioural pattern and the availability of cognitive resources relative to environmental demand, as well as perceived meaning of the current activity or task and the animal’s judgement of control during boredom. The model predicts that when there is a resource-demand mismatch, or when an activity/task is low in meaning, boredom will prompt behaviours that aim to either change goals or regulate cognitive resources and demand to support persevering towards the current goal. In situations where the subject does not judge adequate control to successfully alleviate boredom through these strategies, the model predicts the occurrence of non-goal-related behaviours. The model is used to investigate how existing research on environmental conditions and ‘enrichment’ (mainly through increased complexity) contributes to our understanding of boredom in animals. One important knowledge gap is understanding how a lack of change over time (i.e. monotony) is perceived as an antecedent to boredom in animals. The way monotony, so defined, may occur in the lives of animals is further explored. Although monotony is recognised as an antecedent of boredom in humans, it may not lead to boredom in all animals. The evolutionary background of a species is predicted to influence whether monotony is aversive to members of that species, and different types of monotony may be aversive to, or preferred by, different animals. Consideration of the key features of monotony led to the development of an experimental paradigm for investigating the behavioural outcomes of task-related monotony in rats, with a view to observing whether the predicted strategies associated with boredom occur during monotony in a species that is expected to find such conditions aversive. The planned experiment could only be completed with a single animal, and the data recorded could not be fully analysed within the timeframe of this PhD. Nonetheless, the paradigm provides a potential method for investigating how monotony is perceived by animals and identifying any associated welfare impacts. To date, there is a small amount of focussed evidence that animals in restrictive environments exhibit attempts to switch goals when opportunities are made available. However, most studies only report collapsed data such as the overall duration of different behaviours, precluding the recognition of behavioural patterns that indicate the occurrence of boredom according to the model developed here. Understanding these behaviours requires continuous monitoring to observe wider behavioural patterns over time. The model presented supports the systematic investigation of boredom in animals by generating predictions about the expected behavioural outcomes in situations with different features, which can be further examined and tested in future research. The exploration of boredom presented here contributes to a growing area of animal welfare science. The recognition and alleviation of boredom are both important and it is hoped that this work will contribute to a strong foundation that will support and provide rigour to future studies.
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    Validation of tri-axial accelerometers and the impact of environmental enrichment on behaviour and welfare of domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Animal Science at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2024) Redmond, Cushla
    Monitoring and quantifying behaviour in dogs can provide valuable insight into their overall health and welfare. Behavioural observation in dogs can often be labour-intensive and time consuming. However, recent advances in remote sensing technologies, such as accelerometery, offer an automated method for continuously measuring behaviour without an observer present. The first aim of this thesis was to investigate the use of remote sensing technology, particularly tri-axial ActiGraph® WGT3X-BT accelerometers, along with machine learning (ML) algorithms to automatically classify behaviour in six colony-housed domestic dogs (Chapter 2). A total of 132,295 seconds (~36.7 hours; ~6.1 hours per dog) of video footage of behaviour were recorded. Five modelling rounds were created using ML techniques, with model 4 achieving the highest overall accuracy and kappa coefficient while still capturing a wide range of behaviours. The study found that the ActiGraph® WGT3X-BT accelerometer can accurately classify behaviour in domestic dogs. However, it also revealed challenges in differentiating behaviours with similar acceleration profiles, particularly in classifying the "standing" behaviour. As a result, behaviours were grouped during the model-building process to improve overall accuracy. The refined models significantly improved over time, indicating a promising method for detailed and remote assessment of domestic dog behaviour. The secondary aim of the thesis was to evaluate the potential use of tri-axial accelerometery and a validated random forests model for determining the efficacy of environmental enrichment treatments and to assess the effect of food, olfactory, and tactile enrichment treatments on the behaviour and activity of six colony-housed domestic dogs (Chapter 3). Significant differences were observed among enrichment treatments regarding active/inactive behaviour, ODBA levels, individual behaviours, and interaction durations. The use of ActiGraph® devices were demonstrated to be an accurate and objective method for measuring the success of enrichment activities, particularly when used alongside other observational methods such as interaction duration. The study emphasised the impact of environmental factors, individual differences among dogs, and seasonal variations on the effectiveness of enrichment. It highlighted the need for personalised enrichment programs to enhance the overall effectiveness of treatments.
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    Does exploratory behaviour predict predatory behaviour in the Aussie bronze jumping spider (Helpis minitabunda)? : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Conservation Biology at Massey University, Albany, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2023) Caffell, Melissa
    Individual variation in behaviour, also known as animal personality, has been described in diverse taxa for hundreds of years. However, it is only recently that information about the influence of personality traits on populations and ecosystem dynamics has started to emerge. Predator-prey interactions are important drivers of evolutionary processes, shaping communities and altering trophic cascades. Most studies to date that have investigated the links between personality and predation have focussed on the effects of personality traits of prey on predator-prey interactions. It is becoming increasingly evident that the personality traits of predators and the interactions between predator and prey personalities also influence predatory interactions. Personality assays are usually performed in the laboratory where researchers have greater control over environmental variables than in field assays. However, the controlled environment of the laboratory may change animal behaviour leading to results that are not ecologically relevant. In my thesis, I first investigated whether individual performance in emergence and exploration assays is correlated between laboratory and field environments in the Aussie bronze hopper (Helpis minitabunda; Araneae, Salicidae) (Chapter Two). Then, using what I learned in Chapter Two about the design of exploration assays, I investigated whether exploration behaviour in H. minitabunda is correlated with predatory behaviour (Chapter Three). While I found no correlation in emergence behaviour between my laboratory-based and field-based assays, there was a strong correlation in exploration behaviour. I also found no correlations between exploration behaviour and predatory behaviour. This suggests that laboratory-based exploration assays, but not emergence assays, are likely to generate ecologically relevant results in the jumping spider H. minitabunda. However, exploration behaviour may not be a good predictor of predatory behaviour in jumping spiders. Further testing with more complex arenas and different types of prey may be more likely to show a relationship between exploration and predation behaviour. The results of my research support the use of laboratory assays to test personality traits but also highlight the importance of comparative tests to check that laboratory assays reflect behaviour in more natural environments. My results will hopefully encourage further research investigating personality traits and their influence on predator-prey interactions.
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    The influence of stereotypic behaviour on non-experts’ perception of the mental experiences of zoo-housed animals : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Animal Science at Massey University, Manawatū, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2023) Gibbs, Rebecca Maree
    Modern zoos play a multifaceted role in society, encompassing conservation, education, research, animal welfare enhancement, and entertainment. Zoos prioritise animal welfare, utilising insights from animal science advancements. The affective state orientation, recognising animals' positive and negative mental experiences, is crucial for assessing and improving welfare. The affective state orientation relies on robust human inferences about the mental experiences of animals. Challenges to the social acceptability of zoos persist due to confined spaces leading to zoo housed animals displaying a range of abnormal behaviours. One of zoos' most prolific animal welfare issues is the prevalence of stereotypic behaviour. Animals displaying stereotypic behaviours may be experiencing distress. The perception of distress will influence our moral judgements regarding which animals need intervention or protection. Various terms, like stereotypic behaviour, characterise behaviours observed in zoo-housed animals. Still, more clarity surrounding these terms is needed to infer animal experiences. Non-experts struggle to identify behaviours due to species-specific complexity, affecting the leap from observation to inference. Human perception further complicates this process as non-expert’s perceptions and opinions influence the zoo's social license to operate. Human perception of animals significantly influences attitudes, behaviours, and willingness to affect change. Perception is molded by physical attributes, familiarity, and anthropomorphism, all of which influence animals' perceived cognitive abilities and mind perception. If non experts have negative perceptions of animal behaviour in zoos, this may affect the type or prioritisation of mitigation strategies. This perception could also affect animal welfare as certain animals could be perceived to have negative mental experiences and, therefore, poor welfare. This would reduce zoo's social license to operate, as welfare is something zoos are obligated to uphold. Assessing animal behaviour requires expert frameworks. However, the complexity of these frameworks makes applying species-specific assessments to diverse zoo-housed species nearly impossible. Qualitative Behaviour Assessment (QBA) involves assessors directly recording perceived mental experiences, bridging behaviour observation and inference. Therefore, this methodology represents a potential approach to exploring non-expert perceptions about the mental experiences of zoo-housed animals. An approach similar to the methodology used in QBA formed the basis of this thesis. In Study 1, participants viewed videos, each featuring a different animal displaying a specific behaviour. They responded freely, recording the perceived mental experience of the animal and attributing a valence (positive, neutral, or negative) to each term. In Study 2, a new group of participants watched the same videos. Participants rated the top 10 terms from Study 1 on a 0-10 scale, with zero meaning extremely unlikely to be experiencing the term and ten meaning extremely likely to be experiencing the term. They were then asked if they perceived any behaviours of concern in the video. A definition of stereotypic behaviour 1 was given, and they were then asked if any of the behaviours in the videos they watched met this criterion. There were a total of 220 unique mental experiences recorded by participants in Study 1. The most commonly used term was hunger, followed by happy and bored. Valence was found to be ambiguous in most cases, with only two terms within the top 20 showing 100% consistency in response. In Study 2, principal component analysis (PCA) reduced the ten items (terms) into positive and negative components. Positively valenced terms from Study 1 loaded on the positive component in Study 2 and vice versa for the negative component. The polar bear video received the most negative rating, while the otter video was the most positive. The non-stereotypic tiger, zebra, and frog videos were classified as being more negative than the shark and giraffe videos, which were stereotypic. The polar bear video was classified as the most concerning and had the highest percentage of participants who watched it correctly, identifying it as a stereotypic behaviour. The otter, bee, and parrot videos had no concern but were identified as being a stereotypic behaviour by 29%, 12%, and 6% of participants, respectively. The results show that non-experts are willing to attribute mental experiences to various zoo-housed animals. Non-expert's level of concern and ability to identify concern is influenced by various aspects of human perception. Participants had varying thresholds of concern towards the level of repetition and interpretation of the context of the behaviour. These varied responses emphasised the ambiguity of the stereotypic behaviour definition. This research methodology has the potential to advance existing theories by providing an extensive set of mental experiences and valences that can be used as a starting point for understanding non-experts' perceptions of animal behaviour. It promotes a more accurate and comprehensive approach to studying animal behaviour from a non-expert perspective, bridging the gap between expert and public perceptions. Zoos can involve visitors' perceptions, enhancing support and biodiversity preservation, which increases their social license to operate.