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Item The relationship between income adequacy and cognitive function : an Aotearoa New Zealand lens : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science of Psychology at Massey University, Wellington, New Zealand(Massey University, 2025) Sinclair, BaileyBackground Globally, ageing populations have increased health concerns for cognitive decline. International and local studies have extensively documented the influence of modifiable factors such as socioeconomic status on cognitive functioning. However, there has been limited research specifically on the association of income adequacy and cognitive functioning in Aotearoa New Zealand. Income adequacy is the self-perception that an individual is able to meet their everyday needs through their current income. This thesis aims to address this gap. Methods A cross-sectional study was completed with 970 participants from around Aotearoa New Zealand as part of the New Zealand Health, Work and Retirement (NZHWR) cohort study of ageing. Recruitment for NZHWR involved random sampling from the electoral roll and over-sampling of those identifying themselves as a person of Māori descent for adequate representation of Aotearoa New Zealand’s Indigenous population. This study consists of a survey, administered in 2010, which includes self-report questionnaires that comprise the assessment of income adequacy, and face-to-face assessments which have informed the cognitive functioning of the study population. Furthermore, the self-reported questionnaires were utilised to collect sociodemographic characteristics and information on living conditions of participants. Linear regression was used to assess the association between income adequacy and cognitive functioning. Further testing was completed to understand the relationship between age, gender, ethnicity, education, marital status, employment, area-based socioeconomic deprivation, and area of residence with income adequacy. Results The results indicated there was an association between higher levels of income adequacy and higher cognitive functioning. The findings also highlighted gender, ethnicity, education level, and area-based socioeconomic deprivation levels to be associated with cognitive functioning. Low area-based deprived living conditions were also found to be associated with higher cognitive functioning. Further ingroup testing revealed the distribution of levels of income adequacy amongst sociodemographic characteristics and living conditions. Conclusions This thesis provides insight into the importance of an adequate income for cognitive functioning in older adults. It reveals higher adequate income is associated with higher cognitive functioning among older adults in Aotearoa New Zealand. Furthermore, findings showed important differences in the distribution of adequate income levels with age, gender, ethnicity, education, marital status, employment, area-based socioeconomic deprivation levels, and area of residence. The findings and derived recommendations of this thesis seek to contribute to informing Aotearoa New Zealand policies and systemic reform, suggesting that adequate income may be an important factor for good cognitive functioning. Further research is required to understand the longitudinal effects of income adequacy on cognitive functioning.Item Hypnotherapy : the unconscious becoming conscious : a phenomenological study : Masters in Health Science (Psychology), Massey University, Auckland, New Zealand(Massey University, 2023) Korovkina, MarinaWhile writing this thesis, and also as a result of it, I found myself immersed in my own healing process, which was both surprising and unexpected. I welcomed the incoming waves of deeper self-discoveries however, and most importantly embraced the healing aspects of my own fragmented self. In particular, while writing the examples of age regression in hypnosis and the dissociation phenomena as a defence mechanism, I recovered the frozen-in-time parts of my own self that led me sometimes to forgotten memories of my childhood. At the time I felt emotional and even tearful, a mix of childish delight and profound healing at a deeper level. While writing some parts of my thesis, I found myself processing a lot of emotions that surfaced and struck me right in the heart, my soul, my essence. This thesis writing adventure of self-discovery has once again been life changing: between juggling my life as a single mum caring for my special needs son and supporting my adolescence daughter, I am hoping I have managed to transcend most of my maladaptive behaviours and the attitudes adopted as a response to my early adverse childhood and some transgenerational trauma that I am quite aware of now, at this time of my life. I do see that through healing, I am healing future generations and hopefully also the generations that came before me. Somehow, for a while now, I have known this is part of my life’s purpose.Item Theory of mind and video games : developing the Short Story Task-B and examining relationships between theory of mind and video game play : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Clinical Psychology, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand(Massey University, 2023) Robinson, JoshuaHow video games may affect cognition is poorly understood. This thesis examined one overlooked area – the relationship between video game play and Theory of Mind (ToM), an individual’s ability to understand other people's thoughts, feelings, beliefs, desires, intentions, or emotions (Tager-Flusberg & Sullivan, 2000). Complicating the investigation of ToM in this thesis, few measures currently exist that can be used with neurotypical adults, and none have alternate forms. Across two studies, this thesis aimed to examine whether engagement with different video game genres or social contexts was related to performance on measures of ToM in neurotypical adults. It was also determined whether the General Aggression Model (GAM) or the General Learning Model (GLM) better accounted for observed findings. Further, a new form of the Short Story Task (SST), the Short Story Task-B (SST-B), was piloted. Finally, it was also explored whether literary fiction familiarity was related to ToM ability and whether ToM tests could be substituted for single-item self-report measures. This thesis found little support for an association between video game play and ToM, a finding which highlighted limitations in both the GAM and GLM. However, there was some support for the notion that literary fiction familiarity was associated with improved ToM. Although the studies developed an incrementally improved ToM measure, like the SST, large issues with the SST-B’s psychometric properties were detailed. Results also indicated that single-item self-report measures should not be substituted for measures of ToM. Overall, the limited support for a relationship between video game play and ToM suggests a need for media psychology theories that are broader than just the features of violence. While some support was found for relationships between literary fiction familiarity and ToM, the psychometric analyses of the SST and SST-B highlight that ToM measures likely require further refinement.Item Extending metacognition : an account of how procedural and analytic metacognitive processes interact with extended cognition : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Psychology at Massey University, Manawatū, New Zealand(Massey University, 2022) Firth, Nicholas AlexanderThis thesis examines the relationship between extended cognition and metacognition by way of three interlocking proposals. First of all, both extended cognition and metacognition should be conceptualised as sub-personal-level explanations that are implemented in the brain and environment and in cultural practices that inform individual skill. Secondly, the procedural metacognition norm of fluency, analytic metacognition, and cognitive skill mutually reinforce and enrich each other when dealing with cognitive obstacles. Finally, my third claim, builds on and refines claims one and two when I examine the involvement of metacognition in relation to expertise; specifically, I focus on the skilled interplay of automaticity and metacognitive control when confronted with cognitive obstacles. To this end, I build on hybrid accounts of skilled cognitive performance to provide a framework that isolates cases of metacognitive extension. This thesis concludes that metacognition, rather than being viewed as wholly internal, can be partially externalised across the environment when the individual exhibits high levels of automaticity and control when using an artefact.Item A thematic analysis of the role of mindfulness during the COVID-19 pandemic : a thesis presented in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Psychology, Massey University, Albany, New Zealand(Massey University, 2021) Shaffett, Tori MontanaMarch 2020 saw the beginning of unprecedented times. With the declaration of a global health emergency due to the outbreak of the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19), the lives of millions of people globally have been transformed. With all aspects of well-being threatened, individuals have sought ways to help navigate through the variety of stressors this pandemic imposes, including the use of mindfulness practise. Past research on mindfulness, has demonstrated efficacy in treating a variety of difficulties, including both physical and psychological symptomology. It may be particularly useful for decreasing stress and increasing well being during a significant life event such as COVID-19. The aim of this study was to explore the role mindfulness has had on individuals lives during the COVID-19 pandemic. Analysing posts and comments in Facebook support groups, thematic analysis was undertaken and revealed six core themes within the data; difficulties coping with COVID, connectedness, using mindfulness to cope with COVID, focusing on the bigger picture, disregard for mindfulness by medical professionals and scepticism and apprehension to use mindfulness. This study provides insight into the emerging research pertaining to COVID-19 and the ways mindfulness can help to navigate the stress it imposes through personal experiences with practice. It highlights not only the benefits people have had in relieving both physical and psychological symptoms involved but also the role social support plays in this. Barriers were also identified and discussed with inconsistent attitudes towards mindfulness use as a therapeutic tool by both medical professionals and the general public.Item Clarifying perceptions of cognitive functioning in normal aging and after mild traumatic brain injury : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Clinical Psychology at Massey University, Albany, New Zealand(Massey University, 2021) Watts, Dominika A.The cognitive symptoms reported more than 3 months after a mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) are often found to have no association with objective cognitive functioning as evaluated by formal assessment measures. They are believed to relate more to physical symptoms such as pain or fatigue, psychological factors such as affective distress, and misattributions regarding the causes of ongoing subjective difficulties. This is similar to normal aging where for similar reasons, subjective complaints of worsening of cognitive function are also often not supported by objective assessment. The present research aimed to explore factors which have been suggested in the literature as potentially contributing to the development of subjective cognitive complaints (SCCs) in both populations. These factors included level of awareness of age-related change in cognition, affective distress, processing speed (PS), cognitive reserve (CR), and use of compensatory strategies. The present research consisted of two parts. In Part A, secondary analyses of two databases were conducted to inform development of a survey and model in Part B. The results supported inclusion of CR, PS, and compensatory strategies in the survey, and indicated the need for inclusion of a measure of psychological stress. Part B consisted of two studies which examined the hypothesized model of factors that influence reporting of SCCs. Data from a total of 659 individuals recruited from the New Zealand population was split into two groups - normal aging (n=436) and mTBI (n=223). Structural equation modelling (SEM) was employed to assess the relationships between the identified factors and SCCs in each of these groups. The results provided support for the hypothesized model in that this model explained 47.6% of variance in reporting of SCCs in normal aging, and 62.5% of variance in reporting of SCCs in mTBI. Psychoeducation-based interventions, compensatory strategy training, and in some instances individual psychological assessment and therapy are recommended as potentially helpful in reducing the reporting of SCCs.Item The mindfulness umbrella : a qualitative inquiry into how emerging adults perceive and mobilise mindfulness : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Psychology at Massey University, Albany, New Zealand(Massey University, 2020) Francis, Vickery Laura BecaBackground: New Zealand youth have among the worst mental health rates globally. Mindfulness is often recommended to improve well-being, yet little research has been done within this population. Further, the research to date has predominantly focused on quantifying results of mindfulness-based programmes, leaving conceptualisations and mobilisations of mindfulness largely unknown. Aim: The current study seeks to understand how emerging adults (EAs), aged 18-25, who have a current mindfulness practice understand and mobilise mindfulness. Methods: Ten qualitative interviews were analysed using thematic analysis with critical realist epistemology and ontology. Analysis: Four overarching themes are discussed: Be Focused Right Now: Attentional Awareness; Metacognitively Mindful; Mindfully Processing and Problem Solving; and Part of Everyday Life. Both beneficial and challenging elements of mindfulness are discussed. Discussion and implications: This is the first study to gain insight into how New Zealand EA understand and practise mindfulness. The analysis suggests participants often mobilise mindfulness for coping with challenges and maintaining well-being. The implications of this research, and possible future directions are discussed. More research is needed to generalise to broader EA and New Zealand populations.Item From carnism to veganism : "once I knew, I didn't want to have any part in it whatsoever" : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Psychology at Massey University, Albany, Aotearoa New Zealand(Massey University, 2020) Field, Emilie RitaWidespread and intensive animal agriculture practices generate extreme suffering and have devastating environmental consequences; thus, veganism is a significant and timely social justice movement. On an individual level, becoming and being vegan can have far-reaching emotional and social consequences. This research aims to explore the experiences of the transition to veganism and of being vegan in a hegemonic meat culture. Assuming a Critical Animal Studies standpoint, personal narrative analysis was used to explore the stories of 12 vegans. Apparent was that the transition to veganism consists of various pathways involving a disruption in some form, critical awareness, engagement in moral reflexivity, and ultimately a determination made on the basis of core beliefs. The characteristic of openness and the personal value of justice appear to be critical in facilitating this process. Once vegan, experiences are generally different to participants’ previous expectations of veganism. They report hoping that the sharing of their practice on an individual level can lead to broader social transformation by offering examples of new ways of living and counter-discourses to the norm of carnism.Item Exploring factors that influence judgements of climate change statements : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Psychology at Massey University,Manawatū, New Zealand(Massey University, 2020) Sagayadevan, VathsalaThis aim of the current study was to examine the effect of repetition (i.e., illusory truth effect) and non-probative photographs (i.e., truthiness effect) on mean truth ratings of climate change statements using a within-subjects design. A total of 80 participants were asked to provide truth ratings to climate change statements in two parts. At Time 1, half of the statements appeared with photographs and half without photographs, while at Time 2, repeated statements from the first part were intermingled with a set of new statements. None of the statements at Time 2 appeared with photographs. It was hypothesized that statements paired with photographs and repeated statements would receive higher truth ratings than statements not paired with photographs and new statements. Likewise, it was predicted that repeated statements that had been paired with photographs at Time 1 would receive higher truth ratings compared to repeated statements that were not paired with photographs. Three planned comparisons and a paired samples t-test were used to assess the effect of repetition and photographs on truth ratings. The only significant difference in truth ratings observed was between repeated and new statements, with repeated statements receiving higher mean truth ratings than new statements. No influence of photographs or a cumulative effect of both repetition and photographs was found. Exploratory analyses of the effect of the type of statement (true or false) on truth ratings showed that, true statements were perceived as truer, and false statements were perceived as less true when paired with photographs (as compared to when not paired with photographs). Implications of findings, limitations of the current study and future research are also discussed.Item What do mindfulness scales measure? : expectation effects examined : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor in Psychology at Massey University, Albany, New Zealand(Massey University, 2020) Ghanbari Noshari, MonaThe increasing popularity of mindfulness practices has seen an accompanying growth in research. However, most research has focused on the beneficial aspects of practicing mindfulness, but often without comparison to a control group, therefore the results that have been observed may not be “real” effects. In our current research, we aimed to see whether there were expectancy effects for mindfulness practice by designing two different studies and recruiting hundred and twenty participants to three different jigsaws (as a focused practice) groups: 1) Passive control group; which received no specific mention of mindfulness or mindfulness instruction in both studies, 2) Active control group; which received the label mindfulness on the task in study 1 (without any further intervention), and the introduction of negative information about mindfulness and possible downsides of practicing in study 2, and 3) Experimental group; which received actual mindfulness training in study 1, and positive information about mindfulness and advantages of practicing in study 2. A pretest and posttest design was employed using established self-report measures for mindfulness and wellbeing, in both studies of this research. The results indicated that supported expectancy effects for mindfulness as compared to the control condition. Also, while positive information led to improvements in scores compared to the control group, negative information led to a deterioration in scores compared to the control group. This research suggests that researchers need to be cautious in evaluating the self-reports of mindfulness practice due to expectancy effects.
