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    Language switching in aviation : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Aviation at Massey University, Manawatū, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2018) Daskova, Martina
    Clear and precise communication between pilots and air traffic controllers is a precondition for safe operations. Communication has long been identified as a major element of the cockpit–controller interface, explaining one third of general aviation incidents (Etem & Patten, 1998). Yet, despite multilingualism with English as the lingua franca being a characteristic of aviation communication, little research appears to have investigated the efficiency of operation of bilinguals alternating between their dominant, usually native, language and English in a bilingual air traffic environment. The studies undertaken for this research sought to rectify this situation by examining the cognitive aspects of situation awareness during language switching in aviation. Quantitatively and qualitatively analysed responses to an online-distributed survey aimed at investigating the current bilingual situation in aviation revealed that while situation awareness for the majority (76%) of native-English speakers was adversely affected by bilingualism, almost 30% of bilinguals also reported their situation awareness being affected. Subsequent experimental analyses using a language switching paradigm investigated how participants recognize a target call sign, identify an error and predict in bilingual compared with monolingual English conditions. The effect of the language condition participants’ native Chinese only, English only, or a mix of both, varied across the three tasks. Call sign recognition performance was found to be faster in the English condition than in the bilingual condition, but accuracy did not differ, a finding that was attributed to the effect of call sign similarity. However, when the task was more complicated, the difference between the conditions diminished. No effect on performance was found for simultaneously listening to two speech sources, which is potentially analogous to cockpit communication and radio calls. The error analyses served to test for response bias by calculating sensitivity, d', and decision criterion C in accordance with Stanislaw and Todorov’s (1999) Signal Detection Theory calculations. Several cognitive implications for practice were proposed, for example, in Crew Resource Management (CRM) training and personal airmanship development, exploration of own behavioural biases might be used to adjust the placement of the criterion. The cognitive implications largely focused on affecting attitudes to increase awareness. Attention was focused on performance of bilinguals to identify which language condition facilitated faster and more accurate responses. The findings were unable to support any of the conditions, leaving the question: Would a universal language for communication on radio frequencies be worth considering, to allow everyone to understand what is said? Disentangling the effects of language switching on the performance of bilingual pilots and air traffic controllers remains a task for future studies.
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    In-flight sleep as a pilot fatigue mitigation on long range and ultra-long range flights : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at Massey University, Sleep/Wake Research Centre, Wellington, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2016) Zaslona, Jennifer L
    Objectives: Long range flights operate around the clock with long duty periods for pilots. To mitigate the effects of fatigue, these flights are operated by augmented crews, providing each pilot with the opportunity for sleep in on-board rest facilities. This thesis used a mixed methods approach to investigate the use of in-flight sleep and the factors that influence it. Methods: Retrospective survey data (291 pilots, five studies) were analysed to provide an overview of pilots’ sleep at home and investigate potential relationships with in-flight sleep. A second project monitored the sleep, fatigue and performance of 35 pilots operating a B767 flight route between Atlanta and Lagos. These projects were supplemented by thematic analysis of pilots’ logbook comments on in-flight sleep (N=123) and on the way they manage their fatigue (N=629). Results: Pilots viewed in-flight sleep as an important fatigue management strategy and actigraphic sleep monitoring confirmed that the B767 pilots made good use of their in-flight breaks for obtaining sleep. Self-ratings of in-flight sleep quality reflected ratings at home, but were usually poorer. Pilots indicated that the type, location and design of rest facilities affected sleep quality and duration, and identified strategies for minimizing sleep disturbances and improving alertness. Comments indicated that prior knowledge of inflight break allocations can influence the planning of pre-trip sleep, use of naps, and in-flight sleep. Actigraphic measures of sleep indicated that the B767 pilots obtained more sleep in the 24 hours prior to departure than during baseline days regardless of their subsequent pattern of in-flight breaks, but it is unclear when they were advised about their break pattern. Ratings of sleepiness and fatigue increased across the B767 flights, but psychomotor vigilance task performance at the start of duty and at top of descent was not associated with prior wakefulness, prior sleep duration or in-flight sleep duration. Conclusions: In-flight sleep is a well-utilized and effective fatigue mitigation strategy that may be supplemented by other strategies such as flight preparation techniques. To further reduce pilot fatigue risk on long range flights, additional research is warranted into the effects of flight preparation techniques and in-flight break patterns.
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    Cleared to disconnect? : a study of the interaction between airline pilots and line maintenance engineers : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Aviation at Massey University, Manawatũ, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2016) Fisher, Tahlia Jane
    Accurate information regarding the maintenance status of an aircraft is essential for safe and efficient airline operations, yet there is evidence to suggest that pilots and line maintenance engineers do not always communicate effectively with each other. To date the majority of this evidence has been anecdotal, and formal studies have focused primarily on the shortcomings of the aircraft logbook as a communication medium. Despite the notion that poor communication between these two groups can potentially have undesirable consequences, there has been little discussion about how this might manifest within an airline environment. The studies undertaken for this research examined three distinct aspects of the pilot-maintenance interface: 1) the intergroup relationship between airline pilots and line maintenance engineers, 2) operational radio communications between airline pilots and line maintenance engineers, and 3) the effects of deficient pilot-maintenance communication on aircraft operations and flight safety. Thematically analysed discourse from a series of focus groups held at a large New Zealand airline, found that communication difficulties are primarily the result of an interrelating set of organisational, physical and psychosocial barriers, all of which influence the nature of the intergroup relationship between pilots and line maintenance engineers. The use of Interaction Process Analysis (IPA) to examine radio calls between pilots and maintenance personnel identified that while the two groups share similar communication patterns and styles, indications of these barriers were present within their communication exchanges. The effects of deficient communication were then examined using data from the United States Aviation Safety Reporting System (ASRS). Using Correspondence Analysis (CA) to map associations between deficient pilot-maintenance communication and adverse outcomes, evidence was found that poor communication can be associated with both schedule disruptions and potential safety ramifications. Ultimately, this research has important implications for airlines, particularly given the degree to which organisational factors can influence the efficacy of communication between these two groups. In light of the findings which suggest that problematic interactions between pilots and maintenance personnel can have both commercial implications and pose a threat to flight safety, it is recommended that airlines give consideration to facilitating joint Crew Resource Management (CRM) training for these two groups.
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    Exploring the effect of group polarisation on perceived invulnerability in general aviation pilots : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Aviation at Massey University
    (Massey University, 2008) Lee, Seung Yong
    Although both perceived invulnerability and group polarisation are well known psychological phenomena, there has not been any research conducted to examine the effect of group polarisation on the level of perceived invulnerability amongst general aviation pilots. Two studies were conducted to measure the level of perceived invulnerability amongst general aviation pilots and to test whether the level of perceived invulnerability was affected due to group polarisation. The first study tested 34 pilots. Although the majority of the pilots exhibited perceived invulnerability, there was no evidence suggesting that low level group interaction induced group polarisation leading to an increase in individual's level of perceived invulnerability. The second study examined 78 pilots. Although the majority of the participants displayed perceived invulnerability, there was no evidence suggesting that high level group interaction resulted in group polarisation leading to an increase in individual's level of perceived invulnerability. There was no evidence that the two experimental manipulations (low group interaction and high group interaction) differed in effectiveness, as the effect size between studies I and II did not significantly differ. Although it is of some concern to general aviation safety that the majority of the pilots in both studies exhibited perceived invulnerability, the level of perceived invulnerability does not appear to be increased by a group polarisation effect. The latter finding is consistent with safe operations, having found no evidence that multi-crew operations lead to increased levels of perceived invulnerability. In addition to the implication of the current findings, limitations of the present study, possible areas for further research and recommendations are presented.
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    Pilot error : cognitive failure analysis : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master in Aviation at Massey University
    (Massey University, 1997) Zotov, Dmitri Victorovitch
    Rasmussen (1982) suggested that there was a need for a taxonomy of human errors based on the operator performing the task, rather than upon the task itself; the "internal human malfunction" (p. 323). This proposal was adopted by O'Hare, Wiggins, Batt & Morrison (1994) in a study of pilot errors derived from the New Zealand official Accident Reports. O'Hare et al. (1994) found differences in the types of errors that led to major and minor accidents. These differences were at variance with the proposition by Billings and Reynard (1981) that the errors in accidents and incidents came from a common population, the outcome being due to chance. The results of O'Hare et al. (1994) cast some doubt on the validity of investigating incidents as a means of forestalling accidents. Some of the accident reports used by O'Hare et al. (1994) had not been the result of independent investigation, but were self-reports by the pilots involved. The inclusion of these reports had the potential to produce the apparent dichotomy between the distributions of error types in major and minor accidents, found by O'Hare et al. (1994). It was therefore decided to revisit their work, using as a database the entire population of New Zealand official Accident Reports since 1965, which had been the subject of official investigation. With the large database available, variability in the distribution of error types was also examined between different classes of aircraft, and between pilots of different levels of experience. Some variability between major and minor accidents was found, but not enough to be of practical significance. No variability was found between pilots of different levels of experience. There was little difference between classes of aircraft, except in the case of fixed-wing agricultural aircraft. In the latter case, the difference in the distribution of error types from other classes of aircraft was marked, and further study to identify the reasons might assist in reducing the accident rate for agricultural aircraft.
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    Investigating the effects of energy drink consumption on student pilot fatigue and performance levels : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Aviation at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2014) Yang, Libo
    A limited number of studies have examined the effects of energy drink consumption on student pilot fatigue and performance in aviation. The results from these studies were inconclusive and inconsistent. The aim of this study is to investigate the effects of consuming Red Bull energy drinks on student pilot fatigue and performance levels. Healthy student pilots participated in this applied Quasi-experiment, who were given either Red Bull energy drinks or bottled water. Fatigue and sleep questionnaires were administered to assess fatigue and alertness levels of the participants. The results indicated there were no significant effects of consuming Red Bull energy drinks on student pilot alertness levels, which was subjectively measured by the Karolinska Sleepiness Scale. At the same time, consuming Red Bull energy drinks had no significant effect on student pilot cognitive performance levels, which was objectively measured by psychomotor vigilance task. However, the performance of participants in the Red Bull energy drink group was improved compared to the performance of participants in the water group, which was measured by faster reaction times, fewer numbers of lapses and errors. Additional, higher number of correct responses and zero number of sleep attacks were also measured. More importantly, the likelihood of error detection by student pilots who consumed Red Bull energy drinks was significant, F (1,108) = 9.12, p = .003.
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    Anxiety as a factor in student pilot performance in a university aviation degree programme : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Aviation at Massey University
    (Massey University, 2000) De Montalk, Ritchie James
    Student Pilots in a University Aviation Degree Programme are required to perform not only academically, but also in the mastery of practical skills associated with the flying and operation of light aircraft and flight simulators. Flight training is a dynamic process during which the student pilot is subject to many pressures both physiological and psychological, many of which may be outside his or her immediate control. Considerations such as the expensive nature of flying training, weather constraints, workload, peer pressure, and an on-going requirement to achieve practicum and academic goals in an environment of continual examination, assessment, and testing, place a burden on the student pilot that is not encountered in the traditional university programmes. Considerable research has been done on anxiety in high school and tertiary educational settings but there is a lack of information about its application to aviation, particularly where the practical assessment and flight testing of student pilots are concerned. This study examines the effects of anxiety on student pilot performance during flight training and flight-testing. To achieve this, questionnaires were developed from existing state and trait anxiety questionnaires and adapted for use in the aviation environment. This enabled the student's state and trait anxiety levels to be measured at different stages of their flight training and during flight- testing and helped identify specific areas of concern and anxiety causing factors. The results of the research confirmed that trait and state anxiety can be measured in student pilots and that test anxiety was also detectable. While no measurable effects of anxiety on hours to first solo or flight test scores results were obtained some evidence of the validity of the interactional model of anxiety was detected.
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    A pilot study examining the likelihood and the implications of hypohydration in pilot and air traffic controller : a thesis presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Aviation at School of Aviation, Massey University, Manawatū, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2014) Chagnaadorj, Odgerel
    Adequate fluid consumption is essential for humans to function optimally. However, anecdotal evidence suggests that some aspects of the working environment of air traffic controllers and pilots may encourage hypohydration. In both professions a high level of cognitive performance is required; however, at 2% hypohydration fundamental cognitive abilities such as arithmetic efficiency, working memory, short-term memory and visuomotor tracking involving attention and motor speed are likely to be impaired. The aim of this thesis was to examine thirst and fluid intake, as a surrogate for hypohydration, in two key areas of the aviation industry (controllers and pilots) where fluid intake may at times be restricted. Also examined are why fluid intake is sometimes restricted and whether thirst is related to affect, psychological stress and fatigue. A 67-item questionnaire battery was completed by air traffic controllers in Mongolia and the pilot instructors and student pilots from a tertiary training institute in NZ. The battery included 2 measures of thirst, the Samn-Perelli Fatigue scale, the Perceived Stress Scale and a series of demographic questions. In total there were 101 participants (50 air traffic controllers and 51 pilots), representing an overall return rate of 80%. Thirst related sensations were significantly higher in controllers than in pilots. 14% of pilots restricted their fluid intake before flying to avoid needing to use the toilet and 48% of the reported starting a flight feeling thirsty; 38% of pilots reported having to rush to a toilet to urinate after a flight. Similar, although less pronounced effects were reported by air traffic controllers. Increases in subjective feelings of thirst were correlated with increases in the fatigue scale. Participants who reported higher subjective feelings of thirst and fatigue, also reported higher levels of stress. In conclusion, the findings in this thesis provide some insights regarding hypohydration in aviation professionals. Most importantly, because of the high numbers of people working in these professions, and the potentially disastrous costs of making mistakes through a lack of concentration, that there were participants who reported restricting their fluid intake, feeling thirst, under stress and fatigued is cause for some concern. Both regulators and future studies might investigate ways in which workers in these occupations can maintain optimal fluid intake, or, at the very least (in the case of GA pilots), be made aware of the possible effects of restricting fluid intake.
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    The role of experience in the susceptibility to confirmation bias in pilots : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Psychology at Massey University, Albany, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2012) Rowntree, Jaime
    Confirmation bias refers to the tendency of an individual to prioritise and seek out evidence that confirms their theory or hypothesis and avoid or place little importance on disconfirming information. In the field of aviation, confirmation bias can have disastrous consequences and has been implicated in several aviation disasters. Despite the potentially fatal consequences, little research has systematically explored the underlying causes of confirmation bias in pilots. The following research examined the role of experience in the susceptibility to confirmation bias in pilots utilising an aviation themed location discovery task. To assess the relationship between flying experience and susceptibility to confirmation bias, 53 participants (23 non-pilots with no prior flying experience, 13 novice pilots with between 0-200 hours of logged flight time, and 17 experienced pilots with between 220-15000 hours of logged flight time) were asked to complete an online map-based location discovery task, which required participants to imagine that they were unsure of their location in four aviation themed scenarios. They then had to select, out of three features given, which feature would be the most useful for helping them to decide on their current location. Two out of the three features provided incorrect confirming (positive) tests of the pilot’s hypothesised location and one feature provided the correct disconfirming (negative) test of their hypothesised location. Results indicated that overall, participants primarily utilised a hypothesis-confirming strategy on the task. No relationship between experience and a participant’s susceptibility to confirmation bias was identified. A thematic analysis of the comments provided by participants was completed, which illustrated that participants were fairly consistent in the decision-making strategy that they used when reasoning about their location across each of the four scenarios. Interestingly, non-pilots and novice pilots primarily utilised a hypothesis-confirming approach most regularly in their feature selection. By contrast, it appears that the experienced pilot group primarily utilised a strategy that favoured the selection of manufactured objects and large objects. Future research should focus on discovering the mechanisms underlying confirmation bias and the identification of groups of people who are less susceptible to it. This information can then be used to create a model of confirmation bias outlining interventions that can be used to reduce or eliminate its effects.