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    Fruit quality and composition, growth, water relations and postharvest performance of "Braeburn" apples (Malus domestica Borkh.) under reduced irrigation : a thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Horticultural Science at Massey University
    (Massey University, 1996) Kilili, Anthony W
    Benefits of reduced irrigation in apple production include decreased costs, control of vegetative growth, possible improvement in fruit quality, and reduced leaching of nutrients and pesticides into ground water. This study was on the effects of withholding irrigation at different times of the growing season on water relations, photosynthesis, growth, fruit quality and composition, and postharvest performance of 'Braeburn' apples (Malus domestica Borkh.). Seven-year-old trees on MM. 106 rootstock were subjected to four irrigation treatments in a randomized complete block design. The treatments were: fully watered control (C); early withholding (EW) of irrigation from full bloom until 104 days after full bloom (DAFB); late withholding (LW) of irrigation from 104 DAFB up to final harvest at 194 DAFB; and nonirrigated (NI), where trees were not irrigated during the entire growing season. Trees not receiving irrigation at any stage developed a lower predawn and midday leaf water potential relative to the well-watered control. For LW and NI trees towards the end of the growing season, water stress caused a reduction in the rale of photosynthesis (Pn), stomatal conductance (gs), and the rate of transpiration. The reduction in Pn was caused by non-stomatal factors in addition to a reduction in gs. Withholding irrigation caused an increase in canopy temperature and canopy-air temperature difference in LW and NI possibly due to the reduction in the rate of transpiration. Fruit growth and fruit growth rate measured from 42 DAFB up to harvest were not affected by the treatments although shoot growth and increase in trunk circumference were significantly reduced by withholding irrigation during the early and entire season. Mean fruit weight at harvest and return bloom were reduced in EW and NI relative to C and LW. The treatments had no effect on total yield per tree, crop density or yield efficiency. At final harvest, total soluble solids, soluble sugars (fructose, sucrose, and sorbitol), flesh firmness, and red skin colour intensity were higher in NI and LW than in C. The concentration of glucose and minerals (N, P, Ca2+, Mg2+, and K+) in the fruit was not affected by the treatments. Withholding irrigation during the late and entire growing season resulted in more advanced fruit maturity as indicated by an earlier ethylene climacteric, more yellow background skin colour, and increased total soluble solids concentration. Firmness remained higher in LW and NI than in EW and C during a 12-week storage period at 1 °C. Weight loss was higher in C than in the reduced irrigation treatments. Skin permeance to water vapour was higher in C relative to EW and NI. This study showed that withholding irrigation late in the season may be used in apple production with improved fruit quality in terms of increased total soluble solids, firmness, soluble sugars, and intensified red skin colour without adverse effects on fruit size and yield. For the control of vegetative growth, withholding irrigation early in the season is best but this treatment may adversely affect fruit size. Reduced irrigation is also potentially beneficial in terms of reduced weight loss and increased firmness in storage.
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    Growth analysis and plant hormone studies in apple (Malus sylvestris Mill.) : a thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
    (Massey University, 1975) Park, Heung Sub
    Previous data on gravitational effects on shoot growth and flowering have been inconsistent. Attempts have been made to investigate shoot growth and flowering on shoots with a 3/8 phyllotaxis in 90 cm and 150 cm laterals. These were bent at different times to the horizontal or to a pendulous position in apple varieties Red Delicious and Granny Smith on MM 106 rootstocks grown under a semi-intensive system on a commercial orchard in the major apple growing area of Hastings. The four treatments comprised: horizontal or pendulous bending during the dormant period, at petal fall, second cover stage and with normal vertical laterals as controls. Horizontal bending increased total shoot growth and flowering relative to the vertical controls in the 90 cm treatment in both varieties. There seemed to be a tendency to decrease total shoot growth when the time of bending was later in the season and no differences in flowering occurred among the horizontal bending treatment. On the other hand shoot growth was relatively constant in all treatments in the 150 cm treatment. A very significant increase in flowering, however, was found in the petel fall pendulous bending. In the dormant period pendulous bending there was a slight effect on the flower promotion relative to the verticals. The production of laterals and flower buds was always more pronounced on the upper side of the bent shoots, with an intermediate on the flanks, and greatly inhibited effects on the lower side, indicating a steep linear relationship from the lower to the upper during the dormant period treatment in all experiments. Generally, the percentages of shoot growth and flower production were increased from the dormant period bending to the petal fall, second cover and to the vertical control. The greatest increase in shoot length and increased percentage of flowering in all experiments were found in the apical whorl zone, and these further decreased from the, 1st to the 2nd, and to the 3rd whorl; this was the case for shoot growth and flowering in the first whorl was not increased due to the inherent properties in Red Delicious. The shoot growth and flowering at the different whorls in 150 cm length laterals bent pendulously in Red Delicious showed a quadratic relationship due to the longer shoots in the apical and the arch position on the shoot when bent at the 5th whorl in all treatments. But at the 5th whorl flowering was reduced considerably, because of substantial lateral growth. In order to describe the growth relationship between shoot volume and total leaf area an index based on the ratio of vegetative and reproductive responses was established e.g. vegetative 10.83 and reproductive 19.80-24.40. The relationship of shoot growth and flowering are discussed in terms of a hormone balance theory. Plant hormone studies In order to establish a ratio of different plant hormones for an understanding of physiological phenomena, appropriate extraction procedures are required for especially apple leaves which are rich in phenolic compounds and other inhibitors. Therefore extraction procedures and purification were examined using 14C-IAA and 3H-zeatin. Loss of 14C-IAA during extraction procedures was due to a high pH in the aqueous phase during solvent partitioning. The final recovery of 14C-IAA was 3.8% at pH 8.0 and 81.1% at pH 2.5 through solvent partition and column chromatography. 14C-IAA was chromatographed on a silica gel-celite column and a Sephadex LH-20 column, giving 80 recovery in 30 ml elution volume around the main peak and 90% recovery in 20 ml elution volume around the main peak respectively. Nearly 100% recovery from a Sephadex G-10 column was obtained. 50-57% recovery of 14C-IAA wes obtained in cellulose thin layer chromatography at the Rf of IAA, and no loss of 14C-IAA occurred during 3 days storage in a dark cabinet. The partition coefficient of 3H-zeatin at pH 8.3 was 13.12 with ethyl acetate and 0.488 with n-butanol; at pH 2.5, 108-89 with ethyl acetate and 16.73 with n-butanol. Backwashing can recover 3H-zeatin from ethyl acetate phase which was partitioned at pH 2.5. 80% recovery of 3H-zeatin in the first 1,000 ml was obtained from Sephadex G-10 and Dowex 50 W x 8. 88.6% recovery of 3H-zeatin could be obtained in a 20 ml peak using Sephadex LH-20 eluted with 95% EtOH containing 0.001 M HCl. The behaviour of 3H-zeatin was studied in paper chromatography and cellulose, DEAE cellulose and silica gel, thin layer chromatography, about 82-60% of 3H-zeatin the Rf of 3H-zeatin being recovered. Four series of plant hormones were determined from apple leaves by ethyl acetate partitioning, Sephadex G-10 column, silica gelcelite column and cellulose thin layer chromatography of acidic fractions containing auxin-, gibberellin-, and ABA-like substances, and by butanol partitioning, Sephadex G-10, Sephadex LH-20, and'DEAE cellulose thin layer chromatography for cytokinin-like substances from basic fractions. Possibly two kinds of auxin-like substances were found and possibly GA9, GA4, GA5, GA1, or GA3, and GA8-like substances were eluted from a silica gel-celite adsorption column. Several groups of cytokinin-like substances were obtained from Sephadex LH-20 column chromatography, possibly zeatin, zeatin-riboside and other cytokinins were found in apple leaves. Based on the estimation of each plant hormone from thin layer chromatography, a relative plant hormone index was established, i.e., Relative Auxin Activity Index, Relative Inhibitor Activity Index, Relative Gibberellin Activity Index, and Relative Cytokinin Activity Index, representing 6.59, 1.04, 2.64, and 8.16 respectively, the hormone giving the highest ratio being considered the dominant hormonal factor at that stage of development. GLC techniques were also studied for plant hormone analysis, using 3% OV-1 and NAA, IAA, TPA, GA1, GA3, GA4, GA5, GA7, GA9, GA13 and ABA markers to establish retention times and detector response at the 2.5 ng level. N.O.-bis(trimethylsilyl)trifluoroacetamide (BSTFA) together with Trimethylchlorosilane (TMCS) silyl reagents produced the best peak heights for IAA, IPA, GA3 and GA1 but reduced the ABA peak by half and the GA9 peak by 20%.
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    Effects of RDI on apple tree (cv. Royal Gala) growth, yield and fruit quality in a humid environment : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor in Philosophy in Horticulture at Massey University
    (Massey University, 1990) Durand, Gladys
    The feasibility of using Regulated Deficit Irrigation in the humid environment of New Zealand was evaluated on trees of apple cv. Royal Gala (Malus domestica Borkh.). The study was carried out in a glasshouse experiment and a field experiment. In the glasshouse experiment, it was evaluated the pattern of soil water extraction by the winter mutant of lucerne (Medicago sativa sensu lato) ASR13R from a 'synthetic' soil layered in the same way that it occurs in the research orchard, under trickle and sprinkler irrigation. Results indicated that lucerne extracted soil water at a high rate and explored deep areas of soil. The field experiment was conducted during two consecutive seasons (1987-1989). Lucerne as under tree cover and black polyethylene mulch were compared with conventional herbicide strip to control excess of water in the root zone of the crop that would otherwise promote vegetative growth. These treatments were applied in combination with an irrigation schedule divided into three Phases. In Phase I, water was withheld, in Phase II RDI was compared with full irrigation, and during Phase III which coincided with the rapid fruit growth, all treatments received the full irrigation rate. During the first season, RDI and full irrigation treatments were based on 25% and 100% replacement EPS (evaporation in the planting square) respectively. In the second season, after a 50% of the soil water content in the top 600 mm of soil, between Drainage Upper Limit and me Lower Limit was reached, full irrigation treatments were replenished to the DUL, while RDI treatments received 25% of that amount. Results showed that under the conditions of this study evaluation of crop water requirements based on soil moisture measurements was more reliable than those based on pan evaporation. The degree of reduction of summer pruning obtained under lucerne X RDI treatment, reflected levels of soil and plant water deficit similar to those obtained in arid environments. Results confirmed my hypothesis that by using lucerne as under tree cover, a RDI strategy can be used in this environment. In contrast, black plastic mulch appeared to maintain soil moisture rather than prevent its accumulation. Nevertheless, effects were obtained which reflected positively in fruit growth and yield. Similar results were obtained under the control treatment, although it was less effective for in reducing tree vigour. The latter treatment, however, can be implemented in most orchards at no cost and generate important savings. Apple fruit growth proved to be relatively insensitive to water deficit imposed during early stages of growth, whereas vegetative growth was checked. Restoring full irrigation to coincide with rapid fruit growth stimulated growth of RDI fruits resulting in higher yield under control and plastic X RDI. Lucerne showed higher rates of water use that were not compensated by the irrigation which affected fruit growth and size. Results showed that fruits from RDI treatments were firmer, accumulated higher T.S.S. and had lower bruise susceptibility than fruits from fully irrigated treatments. Fruit quality remained higher after 10 weeks of cool storage.
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    Fruit composition, growth, and water relations of Braeburn apples under reduced plant water status : this thesis is presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Horticultural Science at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 1996) Mills, Tessa Marie; Mills, Tessa Marie
    Water plays a major role in the physiological processes of plants. Effective irrigation relies on a comprehensive understanding of the impact of water on plant processes. As water becomes an increasingly scarce resource, the impact of reduced plant water status on crop performance (quality and yield) requires investigation. The effects of reduced plant water status on fruit composition, growth, and water relations were therefore studied using both field-grown and container-grown 'Braeburn' apple trees. Vegetative growth and carbon assimilation were also measured. Plant water deficit was imposed at various times during the growing season. The treatments were: control, which was fully irrigated during the experimental period, entire-season deficit, deficit irrigation from 55 days after full bloom (DAFB) until final fruit harvest (183 DAFB), early-season deficit (from 55 - 100 DAFB) followed by rewatering, and late-season deficit (from approximately 105 DAFB until final harvest). Reduced leaf water potential developed in all deficit irrigated trees during the stress period. Only the entire-season deficit irrigation treatment resulted in a significant reduction in vegetative growth as measured by total leaf area, shoot growth, and trunk growth. Return bloom was reduced under an early-, but not late-season deficit. Photosynthesis was generally reduced in water deficit treatments, as was stomatal conductance. Only an entire-season deficit irrigation reduced individual fruit weight. Fruit soluble solids and sugar concentration were generally increased under deficit irrigation treatments. However, upon rewatering of the early-season deficit trees, the values again became the same as controls. Fruit mineral concentration did not show consistent differences between treatments and the incidence of storage disorders was low in all treatments and unaffected by deficit irrigation. Early-season water deficit lowered both fruit water potential and osmotic potential. Despite turgor maintenance within the fruit during the stress period, growth was reduced at this time. A late-season water deficit did not modify fruit water relations. It appears that 'Braeburn' fruit are resilient to periodic water deficit during the season, and that water conservation is possible with limited impact on total crop yield. Additionally, a late-season deficit may even enhance some fruit quality attributes, such as increased total soluble solids. An early-season deficit reduced return bloom and must therefore be used with caution. An entire-season water deficit is not recommended due to the reduction in fruit size.
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    Fruit water relations, growth, yield, and quality of 'Braeburn' apple in response to deficit irrigation and to crop load : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Plant Physiology at Massey University
    (Massey University, 2001) Mpelasoka, Bussakorn Sriprasert
    Allocation of water for agriculture has decreased due to increased demand as a result of population growth, industrial development, and water pollution. Irrigation management aiming at efficient use of water has become a high priority. Deficit irrigation (DI), if applied judiciously, saves water, decreases vegetative growth and pruning costs, reduces leaching of agrichemicals into ground water, and may improve fruit quality. In apple, there is less beneficial effect of DI on shoot growth reduction because fruit set and cell division phases occur at the same time as predominant shoot growth and so DI applied during this period will reduce fruit size. However, there appear to be potential of DI in apple fruit quality improvement but research findings on this aspect have been inconclusive. To promote the adoption of DI in apple production, there is need to confirm and expand the effects of DI on fruit quality and to minimise DI effects on fruit size reduction. This study was to confirm DI effects on fruit quality by addressing relationship between fruit size and quality and to investigate DI effects on under-researched aspects of fruit quality such as physiological disorders, maturation and ripening, aroma volatiles, and storage potential. The possibility of integrating light crop load with DI to increase fruit size was also explored by investigating interactions of DI and crop load on tree water use, fruit size regulation, yield, and quality. The study involves three experiments. Irrigation treatments include control irrigation (CI), early deficit irrigation (EDI) applied from 63 to 118 days after full bloom (DAFB), late deficit irrigation (LDI) applied from approximately 118 DAFB until final harvest, and whole-season deficit irrigation (WDI) applied from 12 DAFB until final harvest. Crop load treatments, which were included in two experiments, were commercial crop load (CCL) and light crop load (LCL) equivalent to 60-67% of CCL. 'Braeburn' apple (Malus domestica Borkh.) was used in all experiments. Deficit irrigation applied at any time during the growing season reduced fruit growth and size. Fruit size reduction by DI was counteracted by a lighter crop load. The interactions of DI and crop load on photosynthetic rate, fruit water potential, and fruit turgor potential (which were generally similar between CCL and LCL under CI but were lower in CCL under DI) are possible mechanisms for this counteraction. Tree water use (TWU) was reduced in DI and in LCL. The difference in TWU between CI and DI were greater at CCL than at LCL and that between CCL and LCL were greater under CI than under DI. Among the quality attributes studied, only firmness and dry matter concentration (DMC) were affected by fruit size with their values being higher in smaller fruit. The DI fruit were firmer and had higher DMC than CI fruit when comparing fruit of similar size. Total soluble solids (TSS) and total sugar concentration (TSC) were higher in DI fruit than in CI fruit in all experiments. In general, DI did not affect titratable acidity (TA) except for one experiment where TA at harvest was higher in EDI fruit than in CI fruit. Fruit ripened more quickly in LDI and WDI than in EDI which was similar in this respect to CI. The advancement in ripening of DI fruit appeared to be responsible for the enhanced production of aroma volatiles. This enhancement was observed on some occasions during ripening and after cold storage. Deficit irrigation may increase storage potential of the fruit as DI did not affect incidence of physiological disorders but decreased the weight loss during storage. The DI fruit were also firmer than CI fruit for at least 10 weeks of cold storage but this advantage was loss after longer storage due to the advanced ripening of the DI fruit. Apart from the enhancement on individual quality attributes, DI also improved overall fruit quality when many quality attributes were considered collectively using multivariate analysis. This was true both at harvest and after storage. There was no interaction between irrigation and crop load on any quality attributes under investigation. Light crop load improved fruit quality at harvest in terms of increased firmness, TSS, TSC and fruit density but increased weight loss during storage and incidence of bitter pit after storage. This research programme showed that deficit irrigation has a great potential as a strategy to save water and to improve fruit quality in apple production. 'Braeburn' is a large-fruited variety. Although fruit size was reduced under DI, DI fruit still met standard export requirements. In situations where price favours large size fruit, light crop load may be integrated with DI to increase fruit size but light crop load may adversely affect fruit quality after storage.