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    Improving menstrual health literacy in sport.
    (Elsevier B.V., 2023-07-19) McGawley K; Sargent D; Noordhof D; Badenhorst CE; Julian R; Govus AD
    Menstrual health represents a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being in relation to a woman's menstrual cycle. From a health literacy perspective, knowledge acquisition and expertise are dependent upon the degree to which an individual can find, access, understand, critically analyse, and apply health information. Therefore, menstrual health literacy can be used to describe the state of knowledge acquisition and application specific to menstrual health-related issues. Menstrual health literacy is low among female athletes, their coaches, and practitioners, and few evidence-informed education or implementation strategies exist to improve menstrual health literacy in sport. Moreover, athletes seldom discuss their menstrual cycles or hormonal contraceptive use with their coaches, despite experiencing menstrual symptoms and/or disturbances and perceiving their menstrual cycles/hormonal contraceptive use to affect performance. Barriers to communication about menstrual cycle- and hormonal contraceptive-related topics include a perceived lack of knowledge among athletes, coaches, and practitioners, concerns about how conversations on these issues will affect interpersonal relationships, and a lack of formal and informal discussion forums. Whilst evidence relating to the effects of the menstrual cycle phase and hormonal contraceptive use on training and performance is currently limited, with existing studies often lacking methodological rigour, impactful steps can still be made to support female athletes. This cornerstone review highlights the current state of menstrual health literacy among athletes, coaches, and practitioners, and provides recommendations for improving menstrual health literacy in sport.
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    Carbohydrates and Endurance Exercise: A Narrative Review of a Food First Approach.
    (MDPI (Basel, Switzerland), 2023-03-11) Naderi A; Gobbi N; Ali A; Berjisian E; Hamidvand A; Forbes SC; Koozehchian MS; Karayigit R; Saunders B; Stanhope KL
    Carbohydrate (CHO) supplements such as bars, gels, drinks and powders have become ubiquitous as effective evidence-based CHO sources that improve endurance exercise performance. However, athletes are increasingly turning to more cost-effective 'food-first' approaches for CHO ingestion to improve exercise performance. Mixed CHO foods including cooked lentils, oats, honey, raisins, rice, and potatoes are all effective pre-exercise CHO food sources. Caution is advised when selecting some of these foods as a primary CHO source, as some athletes may be prone to gastrointestinal discomfort-especially regarding those foods where the quantities required for recommended CHO intake may be voluminous (e.g., potatoes). Palatability may be another barrier to the ingestion of some of these CHO-rich foods. Although most of these CHO-rich foods appear effective for exercise performance or recovery when consumed pre- and post-exercise, not all are viable to ingest during exercise due to difficulties in the quantities required, transport, and/or gastrointestinal discomfort. Raisins, bananas and honey may be particularly useful CHO foods for consumption during exercise, as they are easily transportable. Athletes should trial CHO food sources before, during and/or following training before implementation during competition.
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    Athlete Preferences for Nutrition Education: Development of and Findings from a Quantitative Survey.
    (MDPI (Basel, Switzerland), 2023-05-29) Solly H; Badenhorst CE; McCauley M; Slater GJ; Gifford JA; Erueti B; Beck KL; Nieman DC
    Nutrition education (NE) is one of several strategies aimed at enhancing the dietary intake of athletes. This study investigated NE preferences of New Zealand and Australian athletes competing nationally and internationally. Athletes (n = 124, 22 (18, 27) years, female 54.8%) from 22 sports completed an online survey, with responses analysed using descriptive statistics. Teaching techniques considered 'extremely effective' were life examples (47.6% of athletes), hands-on activities (30.6%), and discussions with a facilitator (30.6%). Setting personal nutrition goals was important to most athletes (83.9%), along with two-way feedback with a facilitator (75.0%). General nutrition topics considered 'essential' were energy requirements (52.9%), hydration (52.9%), and nutrient deficiencies (43.3%). Performance topics considered 'essential' were recovery (58.1%), pre-exercise nutrition (51.6%), nutrition during exercise (50.0%), and energy requirements for training (49.2%). Athletes preferred a 'combination of in-person group and one-on-one sessions' (25% of athletes), 'one-on one sessions' (19.2%) and 'in-person group sessions' (18.3%), with only 13.3% interested in 'exclusively online delivery'. Sessions of 31-60 min (61.3% of athletes) held monthly (37.5%) and undertaken with athletes of the same sporting calibre (61.3%) were favoured by the participants. The preferred facilitator was a performance dietitian or nutritionist (82.1% of athletes), who had knowledge of the sport (85.5%), experience in sports nutrition (76.6%), and credibility (73.4%). This research provides novel insights into the factors that need to be considered when designing and implementing nutrition education for athletes.
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    Recent Developments in the Assessment of Nutrition Knowledge in Athletes
    (Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, 2022-06) Tam R; Gifford JA; Beck KL
    Purpose of Review Adequate nutrition knowledge may influence dietary behaviour, and the performance and health of athletes. Assessment of the nutrition knowledge of athletes can inform practice and provide a quantitative way to evaluate education interventions. This article aims to review nutrition knowledge questionnaires published in the last 5 years to identify advances, possible improvements in questionnaire development and design, and challenges that remain. Recent Findings Twelve new or modified questionnaires were identified. All had undergone validity and reliability testing. Advancements included quantitative measures of content validity and Rasch analysis. Online questionnaires were common, with at least seven using this format. Advances included use of images (n=2), automated scored feedback (n=1), and use of applied questions. Summary While advancements have been made in validation and reliability testing and electronic delivery, new questionnaires would benefit from interactive and attractive features including images, provision of electronic feedback, and applied questions.
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    Validation of a sports nutrition knowledge questionnaire for athletes in the United Kingdom and Ireland
    (Cambridge University Press on behalf of The Nutrition Society, 2023-01-06) Edmonds C; Tam R; Madigan S; Gubb L; Beck KL; Gifford JA; Flood VM; Prvan T; Gemming LN; O'Connor H
    Sound general and sports nutrition knowledge in athletes is essential for making appropriate dietary choices. Assessment of nutrition knowledge enables evaluation and tailoring of nutrition education. However, few well-validated tools are available to assess nutrition knowledge in athletes. The objective of the present study was to establish the validity of the Platform to Evaluate Athlete Knowledge Sports - Nutrition Questionnaire (PEAKS-NQ) for use in the United Kingdom and Irish (UK-I) athletes. To confirm content validity, twenty-three sports nutritionists (SNs) from elite, UK-I sports institutes provided feedback on the PEAKS-NQ via a modified Delphi method. After minor changes, the UK-I version of the PEAKS-NQ was administered to UK-I SN from the British Dietetic Association Sport and Exercise Nutrition Register, and elite athletes (EA) training at elite sports institutes in the UK and Ireland. Independent samples t-test and independent samples median tests were used to compare PEAKS-NQ total and subsection scores between EA and SN (to assess construct validity). Cronbach's alpha (good ≥ 0⋅7) was used to establish internal consistency. The SN achieved greater overall [SN (n 23) 92⋅3 (9⋅3) v. EA (n 154): 71⋅4 (10⋅0)%; P < 0⋅001] and individual section scores (P < 0⋅001) except Section B, Identification of Food Groups (P = 0⋅07). Largest knowledge differences between SN and EA were in Section D, Applied Sports Nutrition [SN: 88⋅5 (8⋅9) v. EA: 56⋅7 (14⋅5)%; P < 0⋅00]. Overall ES was large (2⋅1), with subsections ranging from 0⋅6 to 2⋅3. Cronbach's alpha was good (0⋅83). The PEAKS-NQ had good content and construct validity, supporting its use to assess nutrition knowledge of UK-I athletes.
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    Metabolic flexibility and endurance performance : a thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, School of Sport and Exercise, College of Health, Massey University
    (Massey University, 2017) O'Connor, William James
    This thesis examined the sex-specific biochemical, physiological and physical performance responses of highly-trained endurance athletes to chronic moderate and low carbohydrate (CHO) training diets. In addition, a novel exogenous ketone supplement was studied to examine its effects on participants’ physiology and performance during the two contrasting diets. STUDY ONE: This study was designed to test whether adaptation to a low CHO diet affects physical capacity during prolonged exercise. Thirteen highly-trained endurance athletes (eight males, VO₂max = 66.0 ± 9.5 mL·kg⁻¹·min⁻¹ ; five females, VO₂max = 50.6 ± 8.4 mL·kg⁻¹·min⁻¹) consumed a moderate (>5 g CHO·kg⁻¹·day⁻¹) or low (<2 g CHO·kg⁻¹·day⁻¹) CHO training diet for four weeks, in a randomised cross-over design. Performance was measured, after a 24 h moderate CHO “loading” regime, through a self-paced time trial to complete a fixed workload, equivalent to five hours at a workload calculated to elicit 55% VO₂max. Although time-to-complete was not significantly different between diets, the average absolute (watts) and relative (W/kg) power outputs were significantly better on the low CHO diet (p = 0.03 and 0.02 respectively). Both sexes responded similarly in terms of performance, whilst only women significantly improved body composition when CHO was restricted (p = 0.02). It was concluded that when CHO is restricted during training, trained endurance athletes show improved ultra-endurance performance relative to their body mass. STUDY TWO: This study was designed to test the sex specific response to a low CHO diet during fasted endurance exercise. The participants and dietary restrictions were the same as outlined in Study One. Physiological measures were collected before, during and after a two-hour ride at a fixed power output, equivalent to 60 % VO₂max. The ride was undertaken after an overnight (>12 hours) fast and completed at three points throughout each dietary intervention (baseline, week two, week four). As expected there were a significant main effect of diet and time on substrate oxidation rates during fasted exercise (p < 0.05). The low CHO diet resulted in lower CHO oxidation and higher fat oxidation (FATox) in both sexes throughout the exercise. The degree of ‘adaptation’ to low CHO intake increased from baseline to week four, with significant interactions between trial and diet (p < 0.05). There was a sex specific negative correlation between the rate of CHO oxidation and perceived exertion (RPE) at the end of the fasted exercise (p = 0.001). Women consistently had a higher RPE at the end of the exercise (p = 0.04). These data show that both men and women can increase their rates of FATox, in a time-dependent manner, when CHO is restricted in the training diet. STUDY THREE: This study was designed to examine the differences in the blood metabolome of highly-trained male endurance athletes (VO₂max = 6.0 ± 9.5 mL·kg⁻¹·min⁻¹)who each underwent two contrasting dietary interventions, in a randomised crossover design as follows: four weeks moderate (> 5 g CHO·kg⁻¹·day⁻¹) or low (< 2 g CHO·kg⁻¹·day⁻¹) CHO. Exercise training was controlled during both conditions. Fasting venous blood samples were collected before and after exercise at 60% VO₂max and the plasma metabolome was analysed using 700 Hz H1 nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. Unsupervised (PCA) and supervised (PLSA-DA & OPLS-DA) multivariate statistical analysis models failed to statistically separate the sample groups in regards to the dietary intervention. However, both methods of supervised discriminant analysis (PLS-DA and OPLS-DA) could separate groups based on time (i.e. pre–post exercise). The variable influence on projection (VIP) was used to identify the individual metabolites causing the group separation within the discriminant analysis. Metabolites were analysed using two-way ANOVA and paired t-tests, with the only significant difference being the blood glucose response to exercise at the end of each dietary intervention (p = 0.006). In conclusion, neither the resting nor exercising metabolome is significantly influenced by the CHO content of the diet. This indicates that endurance-trained individuals possess the metabolic flexibility to counter changes in dietary CHO availability and maintain a normal circulating metabolic profile. STUDY FOUR: The aim of this case study was two-fold: to test the effectiveness of a proposed study, and to explore the validity of reports which have claimed that ingesting a ketone supplement can improve endurance performance. One highly-trained male triathlete (VO₂max = 73.0 mL·kg⁻¹·min⁻¹) completed four time-to-exhaustion (TTE) cycling bouts, each preceded by two hours of cycling at 60% VO₂max (power = 213 W). The exercise bouts were completed in a crossover design as follows: ketogenic diet (< 1.5 g CHO·kg⁻¹·day⁻¹) and regular (non-ketogenic) sports drink (K), ketogenic diet with ketone-containing drink (K+KS), high CHO diet (> 5 g CHO·kg⁻¹·day⁻¹) and regular sports drink (CHO), moderate CHO diet and ketone-containing drink (CHO+KS). Ketosis was confirmed with sustained resting blood β – hydroxybutyrate (β-HB) levels of >0.2 mM. Ketone supplementation was associated with better performance following both dietary interventions, with CHO+KS being better than K+KS (12:54 minutes vs 13:32 minutes, respectively). Ketone supplementation resulted in higher [β-HB] during exercise relative to the sports drink (0.63 & 0.78 mM vs 0.20 & 0.25 mM, respectively). VO₂ and blood lactate did not noticeably differ during the fixed intensity ride, but differed greatly during the TTE, with VO₂ beginning higher on the high CHO diet. The results from this study show the potential benefits of ingesting a ketone supplement on endurance performance and suggest that the moderate CHO status of the individual may have an additive effect. Based on these results, it was suggested that a full scientific study be carried out to further test the effectiveness of ketone supplementation on endurance performance. STUDY FIVE: The aim of this study was to test the effects of ingesting a ketone supplement on endurance performance in two different metabolic states, induced by dietary interventions. Six well-trained male endurance athletes (age: 29 ± 9 yrs, mass: 74.1 ± 7.7 kg, VO₂max: 64.1 ± 5.8 mL·kg⁻¹·min⁻¹) underwent a randomised, double-blinded, placebo-controlled protocol, consisting of two dietary interventions, completed as a cross-over design. Following each dietary intervention, a performance session was carried out, during which, participants drank either a ketone-containing (KS) or placebo (PLB) drink. Thus, the performance session was carried out a total of six times; habitual diet (BASE1, BASE2), moderate-CHO diet + PLB (PLB+CHO), moderate-CHO diet + KS (KS+CHO), ketogenic diet + PLB (PLB+K), ketogenic diet + KS (KS+K). Physiological measures were taken during each performance session, which consisted of a 40-minute fixed intensity ride, followed by a self-paced time trial (TT), to complete a fixed workload equivalent to 20 minutes at 75% VO₂ max. There were no main effects or interactions between diet and KS on TT performance or body mass. The KS significantly increased the beta-hydroxybutyrate concentration [β-HB] in the blood at rest and during exercise (peak = 1.1 mM) (p = 0.001). The KS caused an attenuated blood lactate response during the TT compared to baseline and PLB. The respiratory exchange ratio (RER) was significantly lower on the ketogenic diet at rest and throughout fixed intensity exercise but did not differ during the TT. It is concluded that the circulating [β-HB] attained were not high enough to significantly contribute to muscular energy provision via oxidative phosphorylation and that future research into ketone supplements and exercise performance should ensure that a minimum of 2 mM [β-HB] is obtained. Further, the CHO status of the individual can be largely ignored as supplementation appears to be equally effective irrespective of the CHO status.
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    Athlete basic psychological needs and coaches' contribution to their satisfaction : a case study of a high-performance sports team : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Sport & Exercise Science at Massey University, Albany, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2020) Wood, Warrick
    A significant and robust body of research has led to a general consensus that sports coaches play a significant role in influencing a range of athlete experiences and outcomes. In this regard, self-determination theory and basic psychological needs theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985) are two major frameworks within which to consider and understand human motivation, psychological needs, performance and well-being. The primary aim of this study was to investigate athlete perceptions of and experiences regarding their basic psychological needs and to examine their coaches’ contributions towards meeting such needs within the context of a high-performance sports team. The team concerned involved female athletes competing within a New Zealand national competition. A wider purpose was the projected intention of identifying practical insights for coaches into high performance athletes’ basic psychological needs, based on (1) athletes’ interpretations of how coaches impact on their need satisfaction through need-supportive and need-neglecting behaviours, and (2) how athletes experience each of the needs within the bounds of a team setting. Given such objectives, the investigation utilised a qualitative case study approach that involved participant interviews and extended researcher observations of team activities encompassing meetings, practices and games throughout a seven-month (playing season) period. The observations undertaken sought to provide a fuller understanding of the context of the case being studied, as well as providing the researcher with a rich exposure to relevant coaching attitudes and behaviours and athlete responses to these, with such elements underpinning the perceptions adopted and their expression by the athletes. Utilising interpretative phenomenological analysis as the analytic method (Smith, 1996), the data revealed the athletes’ perceived importance of experiencing satisfaction of their basic psychological needs within their team environment. Furthermore, the data identified coaching attitudes and behaviours that the athletes perceived as supporting and those that that they perceived as neglecting of such needs. The behaviours observed were consolidated into themes that coaches might utilise or avoid when working with athletes in a high-performance context. The findings obtained extend the extant literature in a number of ways. Firstly, they deepen an understanding of the significance of basic psychological needs to athletes within a high-performance sport environment. Additionally, they pull together a number of distinctive coaching behaviours that were identified by participants as being need-supporting or need-neglecting in their effects. Furthermore, various attitudinal elements, such as trust in the coach, were identified as influencing the ways through which the athletes interpreted their coaches’ contributions to supporting or neglecting their personal psychological needs. The study design capturing unique elements of a specific case restricts any extended generalisation of the findings. However, it is important to note that the focal point of athletes’ perceptions of coaches’ attitudes and behaviours in relation to basic psychological needs universally held and experienced (Deci & Ryan, 2000) enables the potential for degrees of relevance across settings. Given the specifics of the participants and the setting, this relevance is particularly likely in regard to female high-performance athletes operating within a team context. The conclusions can enhance an understanding of the importance of basic psychological needs for athletes in high-performance settings and even more widely, and the various ways through which coaches attitudinally and behaviourally can support or neglect the satisfaction of such needs.
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    Flow in New Zealand high-performance athletes and their intentions to use regulated breathing : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Psychology at Massey University, Auckland, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2018) Barrett, Jay Andrew
    Flow, or being “in the zone” (Jackson & Csikszentmihalyi, 1999, p. 12), is associated with athletes’ best-perceived performance (Jackson, Thomas, Marsh, & Smethurst, 2001). Practising regulated breathing could be associated with experiencing flow; the current research sought to identify this potential relationship with New Zealand high-performance adult athletes. New Zealand high-performance adult athletes’ intentions to use regulated breathing in two behaviours (‘practising regulated breathing in a training routine’ or ‘using regulated breathing as a mental skills tool during competition’) along with the components of an individual’s intentions (instrumental and experiential attitudes, injunctive and descriptive norms and capacity and autonomy; Fishbein & Ajzen, 2010) were also researched. A cross-sectional survey was used to gather data. A t-test showed there was no statistically significant difference in the frequency flow was experienced between participants currently practising regulated breathing against those that were not, t(40) = 0.96, p = .342. Descriptive statistics and one-way ANOVAs showed the majority of the sample responded that they intended to practice regulated breathing in a training routine (64%) and use regulated breathing as a mental skills tool during competition in the future (76%) with no significant difference across the competition level competing at, F(2,87) = 0.26, p = .774 and F(2,87) = 0.56, p = .575, respectively. Finally, multiple linear regression models showed instrumental attitudes were the only significant predictor of intentions to perform regulated breathing in a training routine (Beta = .68, p < .001) or during competition as a mental skills tool (Beta = .82, p < .001). Participants’ components (instrumental and experiential attitudes, injunctive and descriptive norms and capacity and autonomy) estimated 67% of the variation in their intentions to practice regulated breathing in a training routine and 70% of the variation in their intentions to use regulated breathing as a mental skills tool during competition. Further evidence is needed to confirm the relationship between practising regulated breathing and how frequently flow is experienced. However, regulated breathing interventions could be appealing to New Zealand high-performance athletes.
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    Determining the relative validity and reproducibility of a food frequency questionnaire to assess food group intake in high performing athletes : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Masters of Science in Nutrition and Dietetics, Massey University, Albany, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2018) Stockley, Dayna
    Background: Optimal nutrition is essential for high performing athletes in order to train effectively, optimise recovery and improve their performance. Given the differences in dietary requirements and practices that exist between athletes and the general population, dietary assessment tools designed specifically for athletes are required. Food frequency questionnaires (FFQs) are commonly used to assess habitual dietary intake as they are inexpensive, quick and easy to administer. Currently there are no athlete-specific, up-to-date, valid and reproducible FFQs to assess food group intake of athletes. This study aims to determine the relative validity and reproducibility of an athlete-specific FFQ against an estimated four day food record (4DFR) to assess food group intake in high performing athletes. Methods: Data from 66 athletes (24 males, 42 females) representing their main sport at regional level or higher and aged 16 years and over, was collected as part of a validation study in 2016. Athletes completed the athlete-specific FFQ at baseline (FFQ1) and four weeks later (FFQ2) to assess reproducibility. An estimated 4DFR was completed between these assessments to determine the relative validity of the FFQ1. Foods appearing in the 4DFR were classified into the same 129 food groups as the FFQ, and then further classified into 28 food groups in gram amounts. Agreement between the two methods for intake of food group and core food group intake was assessed using Wilcoxon signed rank tests, Spearmans correlation coefficients, cross classification with tertiles, the weighted kappa statistic and Bland-Altman analysis. Results: The FFQ overestimated intake for 17 of 28 food groups compared with the 4DFR (p<0.05). Correlations ranged from 0.11 (processed foods) to 0.78 (tea, coffee & hot chocolate), with a mean of 0.41. Correct classification of food groups into the same tertile ranged from 35.4% (starchy vegetables) to 55.5% (fats & oils). Misclassification into the opposite tertile ranged from 4.6% (legumes) to 15.4% (starchy vegetables; sauces & condiments). The weighted kappa demonstrated fair to moderate agreement (k=0.21-0.60) for food groups. Bland-Altman plots suggested that for most of food groups, the difference between FFQ1 and the 4DFR increased as the amount of each food group consumed increased. Intake from FFQ1 was significantly higher than from FFQ2 for 13 of 28 food groups. All effect sizes were small (r=0.1). Reproducibility correlations ranged from 0.49 (potato chips; fats & oils) to 1.00 (tea, coffee & hot chocolate), with a mean of 0.65. For the 23 food groups classified into tertile, 20 had >50% of participants correctly classified, <10% grossly misclassified, and 20 demonstrated moderate to good agreement (k=0.61-0.80). The exceptions were dairy; fats & oils; and processed foods & drinks which presented fair agreement (k=0.21-0.40). Conclusions: The FFQ showed reasonable validity and good reproducibility for assessing food group intake in high performance athletes in New Zealand. The FFQ could be used in future research as a convenient, cost-effective and simple way to obtain athletes’ food group intake, and identify those who could benefit from interventions to improve their nutritional adequacy and potentially their athletic performance.
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    Human temperature regulation during exercise in the heat : effects of the menstrual cycle and ambient thermal profile : a thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, School of Sport, Exercise and Nutrition, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2018) Lei, Tze-Huan
    Behavioural thermoregulation is the most effective means with which we regulate our body temperature at rest and during exercise. Yet, research into behavioural thermoregulation during exercise is still at an emergent stage, as it has not included females, or investigated different thermal profiles. In particular, limited studies are available to describe the behavioural and physiological differences between dry and humid heat for both sexes. Furthermore, it remains unknown whether ambient humidity or temperature alone contribute to the initiation of the behavioural responses during exercise in the heat. Therefore, the first part of this thesis investigated the effects of endogenous and exogenous female ovarian hormones on behavioural and autonomic responses, in both dry and humid heat environments matched according to the heat stress index, WBGT (Chapter Five and Six). The results from Chapter Five clearly show that behavioural and autonomic responses were less affected by menstrual phase, but were affected by the environmental conditions. In particular, trained women reduced their power output in order to nullify the autonomic strain from a humid heat environment. Chapter Six then extended this observation to (trained) women taking combined hormonal contraception, compared to eumenorrheic women in Chapter Five. The results from Chapter Six indicate that greater autonomic strain was observed in women with hormonal contraception, compared to eumenorrheic women, in both dry and humid heat, whilst the behavioural response was similar between those two groups. Furthermore, the behavioural response was different between dry and humid heat, with power output being lower in the humid heat environment compared to dry heat. The second part of this thesis investigated the effects of ambient temperature per se on the interaction of thermoregulatory, cardiovascular and perceptual responses to exercise (Chapter Seven), as well as assessing different exercise modalities (variable-intensity versus fixed-intensity exercise) and their effects on thermoregulation when the duration and average power output were matched (Chapter Eight). The results from Chapter Seven indicate that thermoregulatory and cardiovascular responses were not affected by ambient temperature but that perception was, when vapour pressure was matched between two different thermal profiles. The results from Chapter Eight indicate that self-pacing (behaviour) did not modulate thermoregulatory strain, when both self-paced and fixed-intensity were matched at the same exercise intensity and duration. In conclusion, this thesis extends the knowledge-base on behavioural thermoregulation in trained women and also provides evidence that behavioural and autonomic thermoregulation is influenced more by vapour pressure than ambient temperature of the environment in men. Furthermore, the findings of this thesis confirm that behavioural thermoregulation is effective in modulating physiological strain only when there is a reduction in metabolic heat production.