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    Is the maternal 'babybrain' adaptive? : examining theory of mind, emotional state, and the association with attachment over pregnancy and the postpartum : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctorate in Clinical Psychology, Massey University, Wellington, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2023) Spill, E. Kate
    Pregnancy is a time of great maternal neuroplasticity with associated cognitive and behaviour change. Cognitive decrements are seen in memory, executive functioning, and overall cognitive functioning, and cognitive enhancements in facial and affect processing. It has been proposed that cognitive enhancements may come at the cost of cognitive decrements, due to the brain restructuring in a manner which prioritises adaptive caregiving-related functions. Hoekzema et al. (2016) found significant reductions in the grey matter (GM) volume of first-time pregnant women in the Theory of Mind (ToM) network. On the basis that reduced GM is an indicator of better processing efficiency and specialisation, they proposed that pregnancy may be a sensitive period where ToM may be enhanced to support the maternal-infant attachment relationship. ToM is a multidimensional construct which describes the capacity to understand the mental state of ourselves and others. It has been investigated in maternal-infant attachment as maternal mind-mindedness and parental reflective function. There are very few studies which have investigated individual differences in ToM over the perinatal period and its link to attachment. Objective: The primary aim of this research is to investigate ToM capacity over the perinatal period and its relationship to attachment. Method: Study 1 was a quasi-experimental, between-groups design comparing third trimester primiparous women’s performance on four ToM tasks with that of nulliparous control women. Participants (n=133; 68 pregnant) completed four computer-based ToM tasks: Reading the Mind in the Eyes-Revised (RMET), Hinting, Mind-mindedness, and the Reflective Functioning Questionnaire (RFQ). Prenatal attachment was measured with the Prenatal Attachment Inventory-Revised (PAI-R) and emotional state with the Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale (DASS-21). It was hypothesised that: ToM would be enhanced in pregnancy; ToM would be associated with pre-natal attachment; emotional state (depression, anxiety, stress) would be negatively associated with both ToM and attachment. Results: Study 1 found no between group differences between pregnant and control participants on ToM performance. In the presence of greater depression and stress (both groups) and anxiety (pregnancy only) there was significantly more uncertainty about the mental states of self and others, an aspect of reflective function ToM. ToM in pregnancy was not consistently associated with prenatal attachment. Method: Study 2 compared ToM measured in pregnancy with caregiving ToM (Parental Reflective Functioning Questionnaire; PRFQ) and maternal-infant attachment (Maternal Postnatal Attachment Scale; MPAS) when mothers and babies were 4-6 months postpartum (n=55). It was hypothesised that ToM in pregnancy would predict parental reflective function and attachment; and that parental reflective function in the postpartum would be concurrently associated with maternal-infant attachment. Emotional state was expected to be negatively associated with both parental reflective function and attachment. Results: ToM in pregnancy had no consistent relationship to postpartum ToM (PRFQ) or attachment (MPAS). In postpartum women, the presence of poor and rigid caregiver ToM (PRFQ-Pre-Mentalising Modes) was associated with poorer quality of attachment and greater hostility in attachment (both MPAS subscales; r > .3). To explore this relationship further two mediation models were computed. These revealed that under conditions of greater depression or stress, mothers were more likely to use poorer, more rigid, and inappropriate ToM when they reflected on the inner experiences of their baby and themselves and, taken together, these factors were linked to significantly greater levels of hostility in the attachment relationship and poorer overall attachment. For each mediation model, stress and depression accounted for over a third of the basic relationship between caregiver ToM and attachment. Conclusions: (1) Contrary to Hoekzema et al. (2016), there is no evidence of general ToM enhancement in late pregnancy nor of a consistent relationship between ToM capacity in pregnancy and postpartum attachment. However, given that pregnant women were also no worse than control women, this might offer preliminary support for a cognitive prioritisation of ToM over general cognition in pregnancy. (2) In postpartum women there was a significant moderate positive relationship between parental reflective function and aspects of maternal-infant attachment. Levels of depression and stress were linked to poorer reflective function and attachment and accounted for over a third of the variance. This research is the first to examine ToM over the perinatal period using multiple measures and to examine the relationship to attachment mediated by mood state.
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    The relationship between attachment style and important elite sport team variables : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Psychology at Massey University, Auckland, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2018) Campbell, Jade
    The purpose of this study was to extend group attachment theory research by Smith, Murphy, and Coats (1999) and apply it within a sport team context. The relationship between attachment and important sport team variables, namely leadership, cohesion, and collective efficacy, was explored. Data were collated by on-site administration of a questionnaire consisting of the Social Group Attachment Scale (SGAS), the Leadership Scale for Sport (LSS), the Group Environment Questionnaire (GEQ), and the Collective Efficacy Scale. The sample included 173 elite female netball players from 16 teams competing in the U17 and U19 New Zealand National Championships. Results demonstrate that both attachment anxiety and attachment avoidance had significant negative correlations with almost all subscales from the GEQ and collective efficacy measure. However, attachment avoidance revealed enlarged significance and strength in the relationships. Similarly, attachment avoidance demonstrated a significant positive relationship with three leadership subscales, whereas attachment anxiety did not. Attachment avoidance demonstrates a stronger relationship with the variables under investigation, suggesting this style of attachment may have a more detrimental impact in an elite sport team setting. Implications for theory, measurement, coaches, and sport psychology are discussed. Future recommendations for researchers, sport psychologists, and coaches are also discussed.
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    The foster caregiving relationship with newborns who have feeding difficulties : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Master of Arts endorsed in Psychology at Massey University, Albany, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2018) Hann, Nari
    The purpose of this study was to expand on foster care and attachment literature by investigating how the relationship is impacted between a foster caregiver and newborn who experiences feeding difficulties. The most common types of feeding difficulties experienced include reflux, allergies, colic, arousal to feed, and sucking problems, with prenatal methamphetamine exposure being the most frequently cited reason for causality. Newborns who have been prenatally exposed to methamphetamine are at higher risk of preterm births. Prematurity has been widely associated with developmental issues in newborns, such as poor sucking reflexes. All newborns discussed in this study were of Māori descent, highlighting a possible association between Māori children in care and feeding difficulties. This association is thought to be strengthened by the social determinants faced by many Māori, and the punitive neo-liberal nature of the welfare system. Phenomenological interpretive analysis was used to understand the experiences of seven foster caregivers who were highly skilled in caring for newborns with feeding difficulties, and how the feeding difficulties could impact the attachment relationship and contribute to placement breakdowns. Additionally, the strategies that foster caregivers used to minimise the impact of the difficulty and optimise attachment interactions were explored. The feeding difficulties of newborns were found to make attachment interactions more difficult to achieve, but due to the fortitude of the caregivers in providing the best opportunities for newborns in their care, attachment interactions were reportedly always accomplished. Although feeding difficulties placed extra demand on the caregiver role, the commitment and motivation of the caregivers, and the intervention strategies they used to reduce the impact, promoted bonding and stabilised placements. Therefore, feeding difficulties were not associated with placement breakdowns. Rather, unanticipated extended placement timeframes, which impacted the caregiver’s ability to provide a consistent and stable environment, were found to be more detrimental to the placement stability. Understanding feeding difficulties and their impact on attachment for babies in foster care is crucial when caring for the nation’s most vulnerable citizens and ensuring that they have the greatest opportunities for healthy development from the start of their lives.
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    Tracing the storyline from parent to child : insights into improved family therapy : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Education in Guidance Counselling at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2000) Fisch, Marta Lynne
    The effects of the application of attachment theory and classification measurements to family therapy was examined in order to judge its contribution to family therapy. A narrative case study analysis of attachment relationships was conducted of the first three counselling sessions with five solo mothers of European-origin seeking assistance with their children's behaviour. The Adult Attachment Interview (George, Kaplan & Main, 1985) was a vital component of the application of adult attachment concepts within a family therapy setting. The results of the interview formed the basis for assessment of intergenerational transmission of attachment relationships, and the client's ability or readiness to be in a therapeutic relationship. This approach helped the therapist better understand the clients' conceptualisation of intimate relationships in order to more accurately address dysfunctional habits of relating. The findings suggest that the integration of attachment theory into traditional family therapy methods can greatly enhance the therapist's understanding of historical causes of the presenting problem. This enriched understanding can point to more comprehensive therapeutic interventions, which will contribute to fundamental and lasting improvements in family relations.
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    The role of unsafe schemas and insecure attachment responses in PTSD symptomatology after traumatic adulthood experiences : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Psychology at Massey University
    (Massey University, 2002) Passmore, Teesha
    The most common disorder resulting from trauma is posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Empirical research affirms the effectiveness of several cognitive-behavioural therapies in treating PTSD symptomatology; however additional complications including interpersonal difficulties, treatment resistance and the simultaneous development of other disorders, such as depression and alcoholism, often impedes the effective treatment of PTSD. The aim of the present study was to provide a deeper understanding of specific cognitive-emotional schemas related to PTSD symptomatology. Unsafe schemas involving perceptions of severe threat regarding a person's sense of safety, control and invulnerability; and internal working models (IWMs) involving generalized attachment related perceptions and feelings regarding the self and others, were the schemas that were investigated. Participants were volunteers from the general community, responding to written or verbal advertisements regarding the study. A total of 188 participants filled out four self-report questionnaires about their own psychological and behavioural responses to a past traumatic event. The questionnaires gathered demographic data, details about the traumatic event and information about the degree to which PTSD symptoms, unsafe schemas and IWMs were elicited. The findings indicated that a threatened sense of control was the highest significant predictor for both intensity and length of time of PTSD symptoms. Although moderately strong significant correlations were found between PTSD symptomatology and the other unsafe schemas (threatened safety and threatened invulnerability) these variables did not predict intensity or length of time that PTSD symptoms were experienced. Negative IWMs of others predicted both intensity and length of time of PTSD, whereas negative IWMs of the self predicted only intensity of PTSD symptoms.Positive IWMs did not significantly predict PTSD symptomatology. Several other statistical comparisons confirmed that unsafe schemas and negative IWMs of others both appear to play a significant role in chronicity of post-traumatic symptomatology. The findings generated several important practical implications for the treatment of traumatized individuals, which were discussed along with limitations of the study and directions for future research. Potential explanations for the findings of the research in relation to previous research findings were also proposed.
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    Mothers' representations of their child in a maternal mental health setting in New Zealand : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Psychology at Massey University
    (Massey University, 2005) Hannah, Andrea
    Attachment theory and research indicates that early close relationships impact on later socio-emotional functioning, and mothers' mental representations of their infants are thought to play an important mediating factor. Severe and long standing maternal mental health problems have been found to interfere with sensitive caregiving. The present study examined the use of the Working Model of the Child Interview (WMCI) in the clinical setting of the Maternal Mental Health (MMH) system in New Zealand. Eight mothers, all of whom had either severe post-partum depression and/or other mental health issues, were interviewed. Qualitative differences in their narratives pointed to clinically relevant maternal distortions. Less than half of the transcripts were classified as balanced (balanced 37.5%, distorted 25%, disengaged 37.5%). Results supported previous research findings that maternal mental health issues interfered with the mothers' insight into how the child experienced the caregiving environment, placing children at greater risk for developing insecure attachments. Findings indicated that certain excerpts from the WMCI could be used by MMH workers to assess risk and protective factors to the infant-mother dyad and their implications for clinical interventions. The current research offers support for an integrated approach to maternal and infant mental health in a MMH setting.
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    Attachment type and cognitive status of people in treatment for substance use and abuse : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts at Massey University
    (Massey University, 2002) Murch, Lesley Barbara
    This study demonstrates the importance of examining attachment issues, and the cognitive status of people in treatment for substance abuse. The participants were seven clients aged between 20 and 45 years of age, in treatment for substance abuse, and six of their counsellors. The Adult Attachment Interview (AAI: George, Kaplan & Main, 1996) was used as a therapeutic tool to uncover forgotten trauma and unresolved grief. Each of these participants was interviewed and portions of the transcripts are used to demonstrate the effectiveness of the instrument in use. These findings give examples of the richness of the client AAI transcripts which are then used in the counselling process. The second measure used was Loevinger's Sentence Completion Test (1976,1998) which was thought to show promise for indicating where people are 'stuck' in their thinking. In this study rather than being 'stuck' in an immature way of thinking participants show evidence of mature thinking. Classification of the AAI gave support to findings in attachment research that reflect a substantial and enduring connection between attachment organisation and psychopathology, and was linked to a wide array of indices of psychosocial functioning. Intergenerational transmission of severe insecure attachment behaviours was evident with all clients, as expected, which suggests that further investigation of the use of the AAI in therapy is important.