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    Marine mammal tourism in the Bay of Plenty, New Zealand : effects, implications and management : a thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Marine Ecology at Massey University, Albany, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2015) Meissner, Anna M
    Worldwide expansion of marine mammal tourism over recent decades has raised international concerns in terms of the effects of these tourism practices on the species they target. Moreover, the growth and success of the industry have often outpaced conservation planning, including in New Zealand. To illustrate, tour vessels have been operating for ca. 25 years in the Bay of Plenty (BOP), situated on the east coast of North Island, New Zealand. By 2010, a total of eight permits had been granted across the region. However, development of this local industry occurred without any baseline data on species occurrence, distribution, habitat use or behaviour. This study sought to assess the historical occurrence of the marine mammal species off the BOP and determine their spatial and temporal distribution. Current distribution, density and group dynamics were examined for common dolphins (Delphinus sp.) and New Zealand fur seals (Arctocephalus forsteri), the two most frequently encountered species in the BOP and therefore, the primarily targeted species by tour operators. The extent of anthropogenic interactions with common dolphins was investigated and their effects on dolphin behaviour examined. The number of common dolphin individuals closely interacting with tour vessels was estimated and dolphin-vessel interactions were quantified to assess repetitive encounters. In the absence of previously undertaken systematic dedicated surveys, the present study investigated the historical spatial and temporal occurrence of dolphins, whales and pinnipeds in the BOP region. The examination of opportunistic data, collected between December 2000 and November 2010 via various platforms of opportunity including but not limited to tour vessels, identified fourteen species of dolphins, whales and pinnipeds occurring in the region. Confidence criteria in successful species identification were assigned based on observer expertise, diagnostic features of reported species and percentage of records reported by observer type. Common dolphins were the most frequently encountered species, followed by killer whales (Orcinus orca), bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) and New Zealand fur seals, other species being infrequently encountered. A detailed examination of common dolphin habitat use revealed discrepancies with previous findings (e.g. higher use of shallower waters), possibly explained by inherent biases to the opportunistic dataset. Dedicated surveys, conducted between November 2010 and May 2013, investigated the current distribution, density and habitat use of common dolphins and New Zealand fur seals. Both species exhibited a strong seasonality with contrasting occurrence in summer and autumn for common dolphins and in winter and spring for fur seals. Dolphin seasonality is suggested to be linked to movements into deeper offshore waters and/or potentially to neighbouring regions (i.e. the Hauraki Gulf) and most likely related to foraging opportunities. Fur seal seasonality suggests that the western BOP supports a non-breeding colony and that foraging reasons may explain the species occurrence in the region. Higher density of common dolphins and fur seals identified over the shelf break and reefs can be explained by enhanced productivity. First application of Markov chain analyses to common dolphin within oceanic waters, allowed examination of the effects of tourism activities on common dolphins in the BOP. Dolphin foraging behaviour was significantly affected, as dolphins spent less time foraging during interactions with tour vessels and took longer to return to foraging once disrupted by vessel presence. Disruption to feeding may be particularly detrimental to common dolphins in the BOP open oceanic habitat, where prey resources are typically widely dispersed and unpredictable. While the overall level of tour operator compliance with regulations in the bay was relatively high, non-compliance was recorded with regards to swimming with calves and extended time interacting with dolphins. Evidence of repetitive interactions between tour vessels and common dolphins were examined using photo-identification to assess potential cumulative impacts. An estimated minimum of 1,278 common dolphin individuals were identified in the region, for which the majority (86.9%) showed low levels of site fidelity (i.e. only one encounter). At least 61.7% of identified dolphins were exposed to tour vessel interactions. However, spatial (i.e. between the western and eastern sub-regions) and temporal (i.e. daily, seasonal and annual) cumulative exposure to tourism activities was observed for less than 10% of these individuals. This is likely explained by tour operators “handing over” groups or returning to areas preferentially frequented by dolphins (i.e. presumed foraging hotspots). Due to the opportunistic methods used for photo-identification, these results are indicative only of the absolute minimum of repeated interactions common dolphins may face in the region. The present thesis represents the first comprehensive assessment of marine mammal tourism in the BOP. It offers important contributions to research and conservation in this area via the critical assessment of historical occurrence of marine mammals in the region. This thesis also provides comprehensive and detailed insights into common dolphin and New Zealand fur seal temporal and spatial distribution in the area. This can serve management agencies to implement efficient conservation plans. While identifying that tourism operations significantly affect common dolphin behaviour and repetitive interactions result in cumulative exposure, this thesis supports adaptive management and further long-term monitoring of marine mammal species in general, and in the BOP region more specifically.
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    The role of land-use planning in reducing the vulnerability of the Bay of Plenty region to natural hazards : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Resource and Environmental Planning at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2013) Morris, Stephen Kaye
    This thesis analyses policies and plans used by local authorities in New Zealand’s Bay of Plenty region to determine how well they address vulnerability to natural hazards. Interviews were conducted with planners, decision-makers and community leaders to find improvements necessary to reduce vulnerability. The Bay of Plenty was chosen as a case study due to the wide range and close proximity of natural hazards the region is exposed to. Following a literature review, policies, plans and interview data was coded, arranged into themes and findings written up. This research found that New Zealand has robust legislation that provide planners, decision-makers and individuals with the foundation and tools to avoid or mitigate hazard risk. However, the lack of use of the term vulnerability needs to be addressed. The ‘existing use’ rights conundrum presented by the Resource Management Act (1991) presents a challenge to meaningful locational decisions to reduce exposure. The absence of specifically addressing vulnerability in legislation filters down to Bay of Plenty policies and plans; it is difficult to plan for vulnerability reduction if there is no focus on it. The interviews found that access to financial resources and strong social ties are key determinants of vulnerability. However there were also a number of seemingly contradictory sources of vulnerability such as a greater vulnerability of wealthy and urban communities relative to poor or rural communities. This underlines how difficult it is to plan for complex social problems. The obvious implication of this research is that vulnerability is a complex and diverse problem that is not mitigated by placing people into broad categories divorced from the sum of their circumstances. Key words Land-use planning, vulnerability, resilience, risk, advocacy planning, Bay of Plenty, New Zealand
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    Evaluating the usefulness of a comparative farm programme : the Opotiki case study : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Masters of Agricultural Science in Farm Management at Massey University
    (Massey University, 1995) Romano, Richard Lachlan
    Bay Milk Products comparative farm programme was designed with the goal of achieving an increase in milk production from its suppliers. The company had identified the need to increase milk production to improve the efficiency of the dairy plant's utilisation. This goal has changed in the last year and now focuses on profitable milk production (as the plant has reached maximum capacity). Some evidence (Deane, 1992; Johnson 1993) suggests that comparative farm programmes do not bring about an increase in production on farms surrounding the comparative farm. This study investigated the issues of attendance at comparative farm field days from the farmer's perspective. A simple mail survey was used to establish farmer attendance at the Opotiki comparative farm field days. Four farmer case studies (two attenders and two non-attenders) were then used to enable the researcher to gain a farmer's perspective of the issues surrounding the comparative farm programme. Theses issues were then addressed in a mail survey so that all farmers in the Opotiki area could rate, score, agree/disagree with the issues the case studies had identified. The study has shown that nearly all suppliers, no matter whether they attended the comparative farm field days regularly or not were aware of the programme. 24% (n=117) of respondents were in attendance at each field day. 17% (n=82) of the respondents to the second mail survey considered themselves regular attenders of the comparative farm field days and found the field days to be worthwhile. All of the regular attenders used some of the information generated from monitoring on the comparative farm back on their own farms. Evidence from the case studies suggested that the non-attenders to the field days were also using information generated from monitoring on the comparative farm. The non-regular attenders came in contact with this information through reading the monthly company magazine Update, which contained detailed information from the comparative farm and which 94% of all respondents indicated they read regularly. The comparative farm programme was considered to be a useful source of information for farmers. This usefulness of the comparative farm programme presumably reflects benefits that the farmers believe they are receiving. However using only production orientated parameters to evaluate a comparative farm programme overlooks other benefits of the programme. The study has identified the need for a more indepth investigation into defining criteria which can be used to evaluate comparative farm programmes. In particular there is a need for more research in the area of what information farmers are using to make changes on their farms, and how this information is used.
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    The occurrence and habitat use of common dolphins (Delphinus sp.) in the central Bay of Plenty, New Zealand : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Conservation Biology, Massey University, Auckland, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2012) Gaborit-Haverkamp, Tania
    This thesis investigated the occurrence and habitat use of common dolphins (Delphinus sp.) inhabiting the central Bay of Plenty (BOP), North Island, New Zealand. Although common dolphins are the most prevalent species of dolphin found off the east coast of the North Island of New Zealand, there has been no long term empirical investigation of the species in the central BOP area. Behaviour of common dolphins in the presence of the observation platform was also assessed to investigate habitat use. Additionally, data describing other cetacean species occurring within this region are presented in order to place into context the importance of these waters for Delphinus. Sightings data were collected between March 1998 and May 2011 during 2364 boat-based surveys on board platform of opportunity, tourism vessel Gemini Galaxsea (a 60 ft ketch sailboat). Variables examined included location, group size, composition, water depth, time of day, seasonality, behaviour and the presence of associated species. Common dolphins were encountered during 54% (n = 1265) of surveys, in water depths ranging from 5.0 to 197.0 m. Delphinus sightings primarily occurred in the area between Motiti Island, Mayor Island and Waihi on the mainland. Group size ranged from one to 500+ individuals and was significantly affected by the time of day, month and depth of sightings. The most frequently recorded group size involved 50 to 100 animals, with larger aggregations more frequent during the warmer austral months when nutrient upwelling leads to increased prey availability in coastal waters off the BOP. Groups containing immature animals accounted for 16% of total sightings and occurred throughout the year, although neonate calves were only reported during the warmer austral summer months, supporting the concept of reproductive seasonality in this population. Common dolphin groups sighted within the central BOP were reported in association with five marine mammal species and 14 avian species, most frequently with various species of petrel (Procellariiformes) and the Australasian gannet (Morus serrator). The year round occurrence of common dolphins within central BOP waters indicates that this region maybe important for Delphinus. Behavioural data were collected from 162 independent dolphin groups. Overall, forage, social and travel accounted for the majority of recorded behavioural states, while mill and rest were less frequent. Behaviour was influenced by water depth, with foraging dolphins encountered in the deepest waters. Behaviour also varied significantly according to group size, with 4 foraging occurring more often than expected in large groups and resting, socialising and milling occurring more often in smaller groups. The presence of immature animals also had a significant influence on common dolphin behaviour, with foraging occurring more often than expected in groups containing immature animals. The presence of associated species varied according to behaviour, with the majority of foraging groups occurring in the presence of Australasian gannets. Seasonal and diurnal peaks in behaviour were not evident. Social behaviours primarily occurred during summer when large nursery groups were also reported in the central BOP. In order to place into context the use of central BOP waters for Delphinus, an investigation of other cetacean species using these waters was undertaken; eleven cetacean species (6 Mysticeti and 5 Delphinidae) were identified as utilising central BOP waters. Sightings primarily occurred in the area between Karewa Island, Mayor Island (Tuhua) and Motiti Island in the central BOP. The majority of delphinid sightings occurred in spring and involved the bottlenose dolphin, Tursiops truncatus (50.5%) and killer whale, Orcinus orca (42.9%). Pilot, Globicephala spp. (3.8%) and false killer whale, Pseudorca crassidens (2.9%) sightings were less frequent. Group sizes ranged from solitary to 200+ individuals. Calf presence was recorded for bottlenose dolphins during summer and autumn and killer whales during spring and autumn. Pilot and false killer whale calves were not recorded during the study period. The majority of baleen whale sightings occurred during winter and spring and involved minke, Balaenoptera acutorostrata/bonaerensis (44.3%), blue, B. musculus (19.0%) and Bryde’s whales, B. edeni (16.5%). Humpback, Megaptera novaeangliae (10.1%), sei, B. borealis (8.9%) and southern right whale, Eubalaena australis (1.3%) sightings were less frequent. Group sizes ranged from solitary to four individuals, with results highly skewed towards solitary animals (79%). Cow-calf pairs were observed during spring for all baleen whales except sei and humpback. Cetaceans were primarily observed in association with the Australasian gannet as well as various species of petrel and shearwater (Puffinus spp.). Bottlenose dolphins and false killer whales were sighted together in mixed species groups. Bryde’s whales were also sighted in association with common dolphins.