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Item A comparison of three nutritional models for estimating total metabolisable energy requirements for a ewe, beef breeding cow, lamb, and a calf/yearling in New Zealand's pasture-only system(Elsevier B V, 2025-09-01) Adjabui JA; Morel PHC; Morris ST; Kenyon PR; Tozer PRIn New Zealand (NZ), the metabolisable energy requirements (MER) of ruminants can be estimated using nutritional models from Nicol and Brookes (2017), CSIRO (2007), and NZ's Agricultural Inventory Model (AIM) of the Ministry for Primary Industries [MPI] (2022). The aim in this study was to calculate the total MER of a ewe, beef breeding cow, lamb, and a calf/yearling in a pasture-only system in NZ under the same assumptions to assess the extent and reasons for variations among the three commonly used nutritional models, and the implications for a given farm/s. The study utilised MER models from the three sources above using a factorial method. This method determines the MER for each physiological phase of an animal, to estimate total MER for each animal. The AIM (MPI 2022) model relative to Nicol and Brookes (2017), and CSIRO (2007) models respectively, estimated 13.4 % and 8.0 % higher MER for a ewe, 16.3 % and 16.6 % for a cow, 1.1 % and 2.0 % lower for a lamb, and 9.2 % and 9.2 % higher for a calf/yearling mainly due to a higher maintenance MER compared to the other models. This has implications for feed budgeting and stocking rates (SR) for a given farm, as the AIM (MPI 2022) model leads to a lower SR than the other two models for a given level of feed available. Energy balances and productivity could be negatively impacted if a model underestimates MER. This also yields different greenhouse gas (GHG) profiles, especially enteric methane, for a given farm and could potentially have financial consequences for farmers if an Emissions Trading Scheme was introduced. For consistency in ME estimates and GHG reporting, further research (feeding trials) is required to compare these model estimates to actual requirements of ruminants under NZ conditions. This could help identify the model that most accurately reflects MER for ruminants in the country.Item Improving the performance of Mpwapwa breed cows in Tanzania : a fertility management approach : a thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Veterinary Science at Massey University, School of Veterinary Science, Manawatu(Massey University, 2024-12-12) Kabuni, Kabuni ThomasBeef cattle farming is an important part of Tanzania’s economy being widespread throughout Tanzania. It is commonly practiced by small-scale farmers, often in conjunction with other agricultural and commercial activities. As part of the colonial government’s efforts to develop agriculture in Tanzania in the 1940’s, the Mpwapwa breed was developed, largely from Bos indicus stock, as a dual-purpose breed to provide better beef and milk production. The Mpwapwa TALIRI research centre, in the Dodoma region of Tanzania, maintains a nucleus herd of Mpwapwa cattle from which it has provided breeding stock and, prior to 1973, an artificial insemination (AI) program to farmers. These programs fell into abeyance during the post-colonial era. Critically, the AI service was discontinued until TALIRI Mpwapwa started to re-equip its facilities in 2018. The major limiter to re-establishing the AI service has been the high cost and poor availability of liquid nitrogen, which means that it is not feasible to develop a service that is dependent on cryopreserved semen. In the past globally, and in New Zealand currently, bovine AI services have been based upon chilled or ambient temperature (AT) diluents, so the feasibility of developing a new AI service for Mpwapwa cattle using ambient-temperature semen was investigated. Most of the use of AT diluents has been in temperate climates, so an important component of re-establishing the AI service was to determine whether AT diluents could sustain sperm viability at the high (>30oC) temperatures that pertain in Tanzania. The first step was to survey farmers who kept Mpwapwa cattle about their management and breeding practices using a cross-sectional survey. This was undertaken to determine whether they were interested in an AI program for their cattle and whether they thought it would be a useful method of breeding for their cattle. A survey was administered across 100 farmers in the Mpwapwa region. Median herd size was 7 (range 1-150) and median farm size was 12 acres (0.4-500), milk yields were generally under 5 L/cow/day and carcass weights were typically 112-142 kg. The Mpwapwa breed was regarded as better than other local breeds. Only 17 farmers had used AI, almost always after single-PGF2α synchronisation. However, 69 farmers who had not used AI were interested in doing so and 61 considered that AI was better than natural bull mating being aware of the significant of AI on livestock breeding. The conclusions from the survey were that an AI service would have to be tailored around small herds, probably with fixed-time AI (FTAI) after single-PGF2α synchronisation, and would have to offer farmers significant improvements in animal genetics and fertility and/or easier management of breeding than at the present. As the Mpwapwa bulls had never been evaluated to determine whether their semen was of adequate quality to use in an AI service, the next step was to undertake breeding soundness examination (BSE) of the bulls in the TALIRI Mpwapwa stud. The 53 heaviest bulls out of the total stud of 120 were subjected to a full BSE including semen examination (collection by electroejaculation). Scrotal circumference was similar in bulls that were 24-36 months old (mean: 27.1 cm, SD: 1.6 cm) and those that were >36 months old (mean: 27.8 cm, SD: 2.0 cm). Semen was successfully collected from 44 bulls. Mean ejaculate volume was 5.5 mL (SD: 2.7 mL). Only 4 bulls did not have ≥75% morphologically normal sperm. Mean ejaculate density was relatively low at 303 x106 sperm/mL (range: 57-966, SD: 258 x106 sperm/mL). Density was >400 x106/mL in 31 bulls, >700 x106/mL in 2 bulls and >800 x106/mL in 6 bulls. These 8 bulls were considered suitable for use in an AI program. The variation of semen quality was largely as expected for a breed that had not been subjected to any form of selection for breeding ability. Findings for these Mpwapwa breed bulls largely align with those of similar low body-weight breeds of B. indicus that are found in East Africa and South-East Asia, but are significantly less than would be expected from the improved indicus breeds of South America, Australia and southern Africa. DNA fragmentation was examined in the same 53 bulls, again, as the status of these hitherto unselected bulls was unknown. Most bulls had unfragmented sperm (mean: 94.7%, SD: 6.8, Mode: 100%), with only 5 bulls having <90% normal sperm. Fragmentation was therefore not sufficiently widespread in the bull stud to cause concern about their use in AI. The next step was to assess the survival of sperm at ambient temperatures. Ejaculates from 35 bulls were diluted 1:1 in Tris-egg yolk (TE), Optixcell and coconut water, loaded into 0.25 mL mini- straws and incubated in water baths at 20°C, 27°C and 33°C (Year 1) or 8°C, 17°C and 33°C (Year-2). Motility was evaluated using computer-assisted analysis after 6, 24, 48, 72 and 120 h. Sperm survival was related to temperature, such that survival at 8°C was better than at other temperatures. Survival in coconut water was poor, with limited survival even at 24 h. Mean survival at 72 h was <40% in both TE and Optixcell, but was >40% at 48 h except at 32oC. These results suggested that storage at <20oC for up to 48 h would give acceptable motility (i.e. ≥50%) for use in AI. Sperm from some (n=4) individual bulls survived, however, for up to 120 h at 8oC and from 2 bulls at 17oC. Semen from 3 bulls survived for 120 h at 32oC. These results showed that storage for 48 h at 17°C in TE or Optixcell was feasible for most bulls, and individuals could be identified whose semen survived longer and/or at higher temperatures for at least 72 h. Thus, maintaining semen at ambient temperatures of 32°C was difficult for >24 h, but was readily achievable in an AT diluent with a modest amount of cooling for 48 h. This survival would permit an AI service based on AT semen, provided inseminations could be performed soon after collection, or after a period of modest refrigeration. Finally, a proof-of-concept AI trial was undertaken, in which 303 cows were inseminated with cryopreserved or AT semen after a double-PGF2α synchronisation (to detected oestrus after PGF2α- 1 and by FTAI after PGF2α-2). Conception rates to AI were 62% to AT and 38% to cryopreserved semen (final pregnancy rates were 99% and 97% respectively after 12 weeks of bull mating). Whilst the trial was not undertaken to demonstrate that one method was superior to the other, it did demonstrate that FTAI with AT semen was at least as good as with cryopreserved semen. In terms of developing an AT AI service, this thesis has shown that it would likely be well-received by smallholder farmers, that there is a cohort of bulls which are of satisfactory breeding quality for use in AI, that their semen survives for long enough for AT semen to be the basis of an AI service, and that results to FTAI are at least as good as with cryopreserved semen. In summary, the protocol itself is cost-effective and, as such, it could be used within the Tanzanian beef cattle breeding programmes. Being simple to schedule should make it easily accessible and implementable by poor smallholder farmers in the Mpwapwa region and, hence more accessible than other expensive protocols with more hormones. Even compared to natural mating, the costs of AT AI are still cheaper, making it more affordable than the costs of buying and managing a high genetic merit Mpwapwa bull. Wider screening of bulls for those whose semen survives longer and/or at higher ambient temperatures would allow for the selection of bulls with the highest quality semen. Addition of a limited degree of refrigeration (maintaining semen at 15-20oC) would allow more flexibility to the AI collection/processing centre.Item Meta-analysis quantifying the potential of dietary additives and rumen modifiers for methane mitigation in ruminant production systems(Elsevier B.V. on behalf of KeAi Communications Co. Ltd, 2021-12) Almeida AK; Hegarty RS; Cowie AIncreasingly countries are seeking to reduce emission of greenhouse gases from the agricultural industries, and livestock production in particular, as part of their climate change management. While many reviews update progress in mitigation research, a quantitative assessment of the efficacy and performance-consequences of nutritional strategies to mitigate enteric methane (CH4) emissions from ruminants has been lacking. A meta-analysis was conducted based on 108 refereed papers from recent animal studies (2000-2020) to report effects on CH4 production, CH4 yield and CH4 emission intensity from 8 dietary interventions. The interventions (oils, microalgae, nitrate, ionophores, protozoal control, phytochemicals, essential oils and 3-nitrooxypropanol). Of these, macroalgae and 3-nitrooxypropanol showed greatest efficacy in reducing CH4 yield (g CH4/kg of dry matter intake) at the doses trialled. The confidence intervals derived for the mitigation efficacies could be applied to estimate the potential to reduce national livestock emissions through the implementation of these dietary interventions.Item Genetic and phenotypic aspects of live weight, body condition score and reproductive success of beef cows in New Zealand : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Animal Science at Massey University, Manawatū, New Zealand(Massey University, 2023) Weik, FranziskaThe productivity of spring-calving beef cows under New Zealand hill country conditions is dictated by the seasonality of the system. With the calf being the primary production output, reproductive success of the cow, alongside growth and carcass merit of the calves, is essential. The objective of this thesis was to quantify live weight (LWT), body condition score (BCS) and reproductive performance of beef breeding cows in New Zealand’s pastoral farming systems, both on a genetic and phenotypic level. This information was used to compare the profitability of cows that differ in their mature live weight (MWT) and other correlated traits exposed to variable feed availability. The BCS of cows is a relevant indicator trait for productivity of the maternal herd on a phenotypic level. Cows in good body condition, particularly in the period leading up to mating, are more likely (P < 0.001) to get pregnant. The curvilinear relationship indicates that most improvement may be obtained by reducing the percentage of low conditioned cows in the herd (75.7% pregnancy rate at BCS 4.5 versus 93.3% pregnancy rate at BCS 8). From a genetic perspective, the correlation between BCS and pregnancy rate was low (rg = -0.10). Pregnancy rate was considered as a separate trait for each of 15-month-old heifers, first-lactation 2-year-old cows and mature cows. Genetic variation and heritability were low for 15-month-old heifers and mature cows (h2 ≤ 0.06), but greater for 2-year-old cows (h2 = 0.12-0.14), indicating that 2-year-old cows offered the greatest potential for selection on pregnancy rate. At all ages, heritabilities were greater for BCS (h2 = 0.26) and for MWT (h2 = 0.48) than for pregnancy rate. Placing downward pressure on MWT may decrease the ability of cows to reach BCS targets (rg = 0.24) which can impact on subsequent reproductive success. Most growth and weight traits in finishing cattle had only limited genetic correlations with rebreeding ability of female herd replacements (rg = 0.11–0.32) or cow BCS (rg = 0.12–0.36) but high genetic correlations were observed with MWT (rg = 0.45–0.92) in the current study. Fat and muscle traits recorded on finishing animals were negatively genetically correlated with MWT (rg = -0.40 - -0.19) but were only weakly correlated with cow BCS (rg = 0.02–0.25). Comparison of simulated cows selected on the basis of MWT estimated breeding values (EBV) from within the current New Zealand Angus population indicated that there was little variation in profitability among different cow MWT types under conditions where supplementary feed in terms of increased pasture allowance was introduced to prevent excessive loss of condition. The cow MWT types in the simulation model differed in MWT EBV and correlated traits such as calf size, and adjustments in stocking rate were made to reflect changes in feed requirements per cow. Overall, this thesis provided evidence that for cow-calf production systems where the primary focus is on enhancing the maternal performance of the cow, selection emphasis should be on improving rebreeding ability of 2-year-old cows as the most heritable reproduction trait, and on BCS of cows. Within the limitations of this study, cow types that differed in their MWT had only minor differences in profitability when simulated under a variable feed supply, such that selection strategies may lean towards prioritising the performance of finishing animals while taking advantage of those larger calves from bigger cows and accepting a correlated increase in MWT. This information can be used to develop guidelines for future genetic evaluation programs for beef cattle in New Zealand.Item Use of New Zealand native browse shrubs on sheep and beef hill country farms : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Animal Science at the School of Agriculture and Environment, Massey University, Palmerston North, Manawatū, New Zealand(Massey University, 2023) Wangui, James ChegeSheep and beef cattle farming on hill country through the historic clearing of native vegetation for pasture has caused biodiversity loss and increased the risk of soil erosion. Exotic tree species such as poplar and radiata pine can be used to control erosion, but there is current interest in using native plants on the hill country for indigenous biodiversity restoration in addition to erosion control. However, there is limited information on the forage value, biomass, carbon stock, and potential economic impacts of native plants compared to exotics species. This thesis was aimed to address the lack of information available on native shrubs and their comparison to exotics trees and shrubs. The forage feeding value results revealed that native shrubs had consistent nutritional composition across seasons, higher metabolizable energy, and lower crude protein than the exotic shrub Salix schwerinii (Kinuyanagi). Findings on in vitro fermentation characteristics showed that native shrubs were highly digestible, yielded higher volatile fatty acids, microbial proteins, and greenhouse gases than S. schwerinii. Estimation of biomass revealed that the native shrubs were similar in aboveground biomass accumulation, but differed in allocation to foliage, branch, and stem. Melicytus ramiflorus (Mahoe) had lower foliage biomass while Coprosma robusta (Karamū) had lower branch biomass, among the evaluated shrubs. Estimated carbon stock accumulation was higher for Pittosporum crassifolium (Karo) due to a greater woodier portion (branch and stem) than M. ramiflorus and C. robusta but lower than exotic trees. The data from the native shrub studies was used in the bioeconomic model and showed that planting native shrubs or radiata pine on steep slopes equal to 10% of the farm area would reduce farm feed supply. This reduction would result in a decrease in sheep flock size and sheep flock net cashflow, particularly with higher planting rates and with of radiata pine. While radiata pine had a surplus overall farm net cashflow, native shrubs had negative cashflow due to high seedling costs and low carbon income, making their use on the farm currently unprofitable at the modelled prices. The study's findings suggest that replacing exotic trees with native shrubs can provide high-quality summer browse for livestock. The decision to plant native shrubs on steep hill country slopes would depend on the farmer’s financial situation and interest in biodiversity conservation and profits. However, reducing planting costs and increasing the carbon price would be necessary to make investing in native shrubs profitable and more attractive to farmers.Item The profitability of beef production on some New Zealand sheep farms : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Agricultural Science in Farm Management at Massey University(Massey University, 1971) Lowe, Kevin I.New Zealand sheep farmers are currently receiving product prices which, when considered in relation to their farm costs, are the lowest they have been for many years. Wool prices appear unlikely to recover to levels experienced ten years ago and many sheep farmers are still relying on wool as a major source of farm income. There is an increasing awareness that beef animals can no longer be regarded as aids to good sheep husbandry and instead, must make a direct contribution to farm income. The increasing acceptance of animals of dairy origin as beef-producers, and continued confidence in the long-term market for beef, have helped provide a climate for large-scale moves toward beef-production on many New Zealand sheep farms. As a consequence, there has been a rapid increase in demand for economic information on all aspects of beef production and particularly with relation to established sheep enterprises. It is intended that this thesis shoud go some way towards meeting this demand. [From Introduction]Item Modelling the role of dairy-origin cattle for young beef production in New Zealand : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Animal Science at Massey University, Manawatu, New Zealand(Massey University, 2022) Addis, Addisu HailuApproximately 42% of calves produced annually in the New Zealand dairy industry are slaughtered by 2-weeks of age. This is seen as a wasted economic opportunity and has perceived welfare and ethical issues which could potentially affect both the dairy and beef trade. Young beef cattle production has been proposed to finish these calves for beef at 8 to 12-months of age. This study employed mathematical models to: 1) predict hind-leg muscle weight from young beef as an indirect indicator of saleable meat yield, 2) understand feed utilization and financial effects and 3) acceptance level of young beef cattle within the existing New Zealand beef cattle production systems. A univariate analysis using carcass weight explained 61% of variations in hind-leg muscle weight. This was improved by 6% in multivariate regression analysis using carcass weight, wither height and eye muscle area. Identifying additional traits in young beef cattle would improve the prediction accuracy and efficiency of the equations. A profit optimization model developed in this study identified selling strategies of beef cattle and sheep activities to increase farm profitability and pasture utilization on beef cattle and sheep farms. Including young beef cattle in the existing beef cattle and sheep farms increased the number of beef cattle processed per hectare, farm carcass output and pasture utilization. However, the farm earnings per hectare was lower than the optimized farm when carcasses from young beef cattle were processed under manufacturer beef price (i.e., NZ$ 4.50). Bulls (mainly Holstein-Friesian and Holstein-Frisian-Jersey cross breeds) accounted more than 50% of the total dairy-origin beef cattle processed in agent-based modelling (ABM). The uptake of Jersey breed for beef finishing was lower than 5% of the total dairy-origin beef cattle. Young beef cattle finishing under NZ$ 4.50 per kg carcass was not competitive with the traditional beef finishing systems. A 10% increase in value per kg carcass for young beef allowed them to contribute 6% of the total processed dairy-origin beef cattle. Incorporating consumers perspectives and other decision alternatives for the finisher could improve decision making on the use of young beef cattle in New Zealand.Item The effect of sire on growth and meat production of beef-cross-dairy cattle in New Zealand : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Animal Science at Massey University, Manawatū, New Zealand(Massey University, 2021) Martín, Natalia de la PazBeef-cross-dairy cattle are the progeny produced by mating dairy-breed cows with beef-breed sires. Little is known about the performance of beef-breed sires for growth, carcass and meat quality traits when used to generate beef-cross-dairy cattle in pasture-based systems. Yet, beef-cross-dairy cattle make up around 30% of the finishing cattle in New Zealand, and so improving their performance would enhance the efficiency and productivity of the beef industry. The general aim of this study was to investigate the effect of sire on growth and meat production of beef-cross-dairy cattle in New Zealand. The specific objectives were: to evaluate live weight from 4 months of age until slaughter, carcass and meat quality traits of a selection of Angus and Hereford sires via progeny testing of beef-cross-dairy offspring grown on hill country pasture; to quantify the relationship between the performance of the beef-cross-dairy progeny and sires’ estimated breeding values (EBV) for growth and carcass traits; and to assess skeletal size and temperament measured within the first 200 days of life as predictors of carcass and meat quality traits for beef-cross-dairy cattle. Data from 1101 beef-cross-dairy calves born to 2-year-old or mixed-aged dairy-breed cows were used to analyse live weight, carcass and meat quality traits of 73 beef-breed sires (34 Angus and 39 Hereford). Meat samples were obtained for analysis in the laboratory from 326 progeny of 33 sires used via artificial breeding (AB) on mixed-aged dairy-breed cows. Progeny group means for live weight, carcass weight, eye muscle area (EMA), rib fat depth, marbling scores and intramuscular fat (IMF) of 29 Angus and 34 Hereford AB sires, were regressed against sire EBV within breed. Finally, 486 beef-cross-dairy calves had measurements of skeletal size and temperament evaluated as predictors of carcass and meat traits. The mean of the progeny group means for live weight was 118.6 kg at 131d, and increased to 503.6 kg at 800d. Mean of the progeny group means was 277.3 kg for carcass weight, 240.3 cm for carcass length, 73.6 cm2 for eye muscle area (EMA), 7.4 mm for rib fat depth, 0.91 for marble score, 3.05 for fat colour score and 3.01 for meat colour score. Sire affected (P<0.05) live weight of the progeny at all ages and all carcass traits, but few meat quality traits (fat yellowness b*, meat redness a* and yellowness b*, cook loss and shear force). Differences in live weight between the lightest and heaviest progeny group means increased from 19 kg at 131d to 90 kg at 800d, and there was a 46 kg difference in carcass weight between the heaviest and lightest sire tested. The coefficient of variation (CV) among sires for EMA was 5% and for measured rib fat depth was 19%, with no sire mean below 3 mm and most progeny (97%) grading “P” fat class. For marble scores, there was 35% CV between sires even though all progeny had low marble scores between 0 and 3. There were small sire effects for carcass length, cook loss and shear force (P<0.05). Meat and fat colour scores were not affected by sire, and although there were small sire differences in fat yellowness b*, no progeny carcasses were classified as being too yellow. Live weight of the progeny groups increased with sire EBV for live weight at 400, 600 and 800 days of age (between 0.24-0.43 kg increase in progeny live weight per extra kilogram of sire EBV), although sire EBV had no effect on the live weight of the progeny at 200 days of age (P>0.05). For the Hereford sires in this experiment, progeny carcass weight increased 0.27 kg and EMA 0.70 cm2 per extra 1 unit in sire EBV for each trait (P<0.05). For the Angus sires, progeny rib fat depth increased 6.9 mm, marble score 0.91 and estimated IMF 2.26% per extra 1 unit in sire EBV for each trait (P<0.05). Live weight at birth, 129d and 200d predicted future carcass size (P<0.05). In heifers, the accuracy of predictions of carcass weight from live weight were low to moderate (R2= 17 to 31%) and increased if live weight was combined with hip-height. In steers, live weight alone could predict carcass weight with moderate accuracy (R2= 39 to 48%). Accuracy of prediction for carcass weight of steers increased with age, or with combining live weight with body length at 0d, or with hip-width at 129d. Thicker cannon bones at birth also gave an indication of heavier carcasses for both heifers and steers. Cattle in this study were calm at 200d (mean exit velocity of 1.2 m/s and crush score of 1.4) and temperament did not influence production traits in this study. The data presented in this study indicated that using genetically superior beef-breed sires over dairy-breed cows increased the growth, carcass and meat production of their beef-cross-dairy progeny. Dairy farmers should consider BREEDPLAN EBV when selecting beef-breed sires to mate their dairy-breed cows, not only for positive calving outcomes but for achieving desirable and economically important carcass and meat quality traits. The beef cattle finisher should consider the calves’ potential for growth and fattening when purchasing beef-cross-dairy calves for beef production, by utilising both genetic and phenotypic live weight information.Item Assessing animal welfare of extensively reared beef cows in New Zealand and Namibia : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Veterinary Science at Massey University Te Kunenga ki Pūrehuroa, University of New Zealand, School of Veterinary Science, Manawatu, New Zealand(Massey University, 2021) Kaurivi, Yolande BabyThere is currently no standardised validated animal welfare assessment protocol for beef cattle production systems in New Zealand or Namibia. In both countries beef cattle are reared extensively, and beef is exported to high-value markets. These markets require high production and welfare standards. The aims of the research described in this thesis were to: 1) develop a feasible, effective protocol for assessment of welfare in extensive pasture-based beef cattle in New Zealand, and modify it to be suitable for use on semi-arid rangeland farms in Namibia; 2) use that protocol to assess welfare on beef farms in New Zealand and Namibia. A protocol based on the Welfare Quality and the University of California (UC) Davis Cow-Calf protocols, with some additional indicators specific to New Zealand was trialled on one farm and 50 measures were identified as potential welfare indicators on beef farms. The protocol was then tested on 25 farms (3366 cows) in the Waikato district and a 32-measure protocol was created which was suitable for assessing animal welfare. For each measure, categorical thresholds were created for acceptable and unacceptable welfare, to provide guidance for when intervention was needed at the individual measure level rather than create an aggregated ‘score’ for each farm. These imposed thresholds were compared to thresholds derived from farm data. After this comparison, most of the imposed thresholds were retained. This excluded thresholds for dirtiness and faecal staining (as they were thought to have limited welfare implications for pasture-based cattle) and fearful/agitated and running behaviours, which were thought to be higher than expected because of the unfamiliarity of stock with yarding. The New Zealand protocol was tested in one semi-commercial Namibian village farm composed of 5 separate herds. This test excluded one non-relevant measure (tail fecoliths) and identified nine additional measures (40 measures in total). The protocol was tested on 55 beef farms in three different production systems (17 commercial farms, 20 semi-commercial and 18 communal village farms), and found to be both feasible and applicable. Assessment of the data from this test found better welfare standards on commercial farms than village farms. Commercial farms in Namibia were generally able to meet the thresholds identified in the New Zealand part of the study but many semi-commercial and communal herds were not. This was thought to be due, at least in part to the severe drought occurring in Namibia at the time of the study. It was thus suggested that for measures related to good feeding and mortality thresholds should be changed to reflect drought conditions with the original New Zealand-created thresholds retained under “normal conditions”. Further work validating this protocol with more assessors on more farms across Namibia is needed, but this protocol can form the basis for beef cow welfare assessment to demonstrate and support good welfare standards across the beef production chain in Namibia.Item Saving and social functions of cattle in smallholder livelihoods : a multiple case study of cattle management in NTB, Indonesia : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Agricultural Systems and Environment at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand(Massey University, 2021) Yanuartati, Baiq Yulfia ElsadewiIn Indonesia and internationally, market-led rural development initiatives seek to transition smallholder farmers from current farming practices to those driven by market requirements. Expected outcomes from these often single product focussed initiatives are often not reached. This is the case in Eastern Indonesia where smallholder cattle farming and beef production is the target of market-led rural development initiatives that have not to date matched expected outcomes. This thesis answers the research question: What shapes smallholder farmers’ management of cattle in NTB Indonesia and why? In so doing the complex dynamics that influence the management of one enterprise that is a part of a multiple interlinked livelihood is illustrated, and the reasons why single enterprise market led initiatives may need to be revised is made clear. The sustainable livelihood framework and concepts of functions and attributes of livelihood assets and activities guided this research. A case study of two social groupings was conducted in the Nusa Tenggara Barat (NTB) Province, East Indonesia. Primary data was collected through in-depth semi-structured interviews supported by documents. Data was analysed and interpreted using qualitative data analysis. Management of cattle by smallholders constituted decisions around ownership, care, buying, selling, and retaining of cattle, along with nutrition, healthcare, and mating. Smallholder management was dominated by cattle being primarily viewed as a form of saving rather than a source of household food or income. Cattle fulfilled a complementary function to other smallholder enterprises and household needs and were also significantly shaped by the significance of cattle to social and cultural norms that differ in nuanced ways across social groups living in the same location. The drivers for cattle management were not primarily market-led and the market dynamics around cattle reflected and reinforced the role of cattle in smallholders’ livelihoods. How smallholders manage an asset or an activity is evidenced in this research to be shaped by not only the function fulfilled by that asset, but also by that asset’s relationship to other assets and their functions in the livelihood. This research argues that market-led initiatives that focus on a single enterprise will continue to fall short until greater consideration as to the place of that enterprise in smallholders’ livelihood is considered in designing and implementing initiatives.