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Item Effects of microwave, ultrasound, and high-pressure homogenization on the physicochemical properties of sugarcane fibre and its application in white bread(Elsevier Ltd., 2023-07-15) Abdol Rahim Yassin Z; Binte Abdul Halim FN; Taheri A; Goh KKT; Du JSugarcane fibre (SCF) is known as an insoluble dietary fibre and a by-product from sugar manufacturing industry. The physicochemical and structural properties of SCF were modified using microwave irradiation at 5% and 10% SCF for 5 and 10 min (MW5%,15m, MW10%,5m, MW10%,15m), ultrasound at 30% amplitude, 7% SCF, for 1.5 h or 3 h (US1h, US2h), and high-pressure homogenization at 1% SCF, 2000 bar for 1 and 2 passes (HPH1p, HPH2p). Different types of disruption on the morphology of SCF were observed with different physical treatments confirmed by scanning electron microscopy. HPH2p treated SCF exhibited the largest particle size, and highest water and oil-holding capacities. Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy results showed that all physical treatments were able to reduce hemicellulose and enhance cellulose content in SCFs, especially for HPH treatments. After making dough and bread with treated and untreated SCF, HPH2p SCF incorporated bread had the firmest texture, followed by MW10%,15m, while these two samples have the lowest specific volume. The maximum height of bread was significantly lower in breads incorporated with HPH2p, US1.5h and US3h. Subsequently, glycemic response decreased in all SCF-incorporated breads compared to white bread reference.Item Edible insect powder for enrichment of bakery products– A review of nutritional, physical characteristics and acceptability of bakery products to consumers(Elsevier BV, 2023-12) Amoah I; Cobbinah JC; Yeboah JA; Essiam FA; Lim JJ; Tandoh MA; Rush EBakery products including bread are traditionally good sources of carbohydrate but not nutrient-dense. Enrichment with edible insect powder could improve the quantity and quality of protein, fat and dietary fibers to bakery products. A systematic search carried out on the databases PubMed, Scopus and ScienceDirect identified 44 articles that would answer the question: what is known about the effect of enrichment of bakery products with various edible insect powders on the physical, nutritional composition and sensory properties of bakery products. The search strategy and terms applied were (Insect* OR Edible insect* OR Entomophagy*) AND (Bakery product* OR Bake* product*). Bread was the most common bakery product that was insect-enriched, yet muffins/biscuits/crackers/cookies were also reported. Commonly reported edible insects and their larvae were crickets, mealworms, palm weevil larvae, grasshoppers and African emperor moth caterpillars. Before milling into powders, insects and larvae were pre-treated by freeze-drying, oven/tray and microwave drying, blanching and roasting but was not reported for all studies. Generally, bread with up to 10% and muffins/biscuits/crackers/cookies with 5% of insect powder were acceptable to consumers. New areas of research should focus on comparing the water activity, shelf-life and cost of pre-treatment processing methods alongside the nutritional properties of edible insect powders.Item Effects of Defatted Rice Bran-Fortified Bread on the Gut Microbiota Composition of Healthy Adults With Low Dietary Fiber Intake: Protocol for a Crossover Randomized Controlled Trial(JMIR Publications, 2024-08-29) Ng HM; Maggo J; Wall CL; Bayer SB; McNabb WC; Mullaney JA; Foster M; Cabrera DL; Fraser K; Cooney J; Trower T; Günther CS; Frampton C; Gearry RB; Roy NCBACKGROUND: Inadequate dietary fiber (DF) intake is associated with several human diseases. Bread is commonly consumed, and its DF content can be increased by incorporating defatted rice bran (DRB). OBJECTIVE: This first human study on DRB-fortified bread primarily aims to assess the effect of DRB-fortified bread on the relative abundance of a composite of key microbial genera and species in fecal samples. Secondary outcomes include clinical (cardiovascular risk profile), patient-reported (daily bread consumption and bowel movement, gut comfort, general well-being, and total DF intake), biological (fecal microbiota gene abundances, and fecal and plasma metabolites), and physiome (whole-gut and regional transit time and gas fermentation profiles) outcomes in healthy adults with low DF intake. METHODS: This is a 2-armed, placebo-controlled, double-blinded, crossover randomized controlled trial. The study duration is 14 weeks: 2 weeks of lead-in, 4 weeks of intervention per phase, 2 weeks of washout, and 2 weeks of follow-up. Overall, 60 healthy adults with low DF intake (<18 g [female individuals] or <22 g [male individuals] per day) were recruited in Christchurch, New Zealand, between June and December 2022. Randomly assigned participants consumed 3 (female individuals) or 4 (male individuals) slices of DRB-fortified bread per day and then placebo bread, and vice versa. The DRB-fortified bread provided 8 g (female individuals) or 10.6 g (male individuals) of total DF, whereas the placebo (a matched commercial white toast bread) provided 2.7 g (female individuals) or 3.6 g (male individuals) of total DF. Before and after each intervention phase, participants provided fecal and blood samples to assess biological responses; completed a 3-day food diary to assess usual intakes and web-based questionnaires to assess gut comfort, general and mental well-being, daily bread intake, and bowel movement via an app; underwent anthropometry and blood pressure measurements; and drank blue food dye to assess whole-gut transit time. Additionally, 25% (15/60) of the participants ingested Atmo gas-sensing capsules to assess colonic gas fermentation profile and whole-gut and regional transit time. Mean differences from baseline will be compared between the DRB and placebo groups, as well as within groups (after the intervention vs baseline). For metabolome analyses, comparisons will be made within and between groups using postintervention values. RESULTS: Preliminary analysis included 56 participants (n=33, 59% female; n=23, 41% male). Due to the large dataset, data analysis was planned to be fully completed by the last quarter of 2024, with full results expected to be published in peer-reviewed journals by the end of 2024. CONCLUSIONS: This first human study offers insights into the prospect of consuming DRB-fortified bread to effectively modulate health-promoting gut microbes, their metabolism, and DF intake in healthy adults with low DF intake. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Australian New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry ACTRN12622000884707; https://www.anzctr.org.au/Trial/Registration/TrialReview.aspx?id=383814. INTERNATIONAL REGISTERED REPORT IDENTIFIER (IRRID): DERR1-10.2196/59227.Item Effects of Green and Gold Kiwifruit Varieties on Antioxidant Neuroprotective Potential in Pigs as a Model for Human Adults.(MDPI (Basel, Switzerland), 2024-04-09) Kanon AP; Giezenaar C; Roy NC; Jayawardana IA; Lomiwes D; Montoya CA; McNabb WC; Henare SJ; Digiacomo MKiwifruit (KF) has shown neuroprotective potential in cell-based and rodent models by augmenting the capacity of endogenous antioxidant systems. This study aimed to determine whether KF consumption modulates the antioxidant capacity of plasma and brain tissue in growing pigs. Eighteen male pigs were divided equally into three groups: (1) bread, (2) bread + Actinidia deliciosa cv. 'Hayward' (green-fleshed), and (3) bread + A. chinensis cv. 'Hort16A' (yellow-fleshed). Following consumption of the diets for eight days, plasma and brain tissue (brain stem, corpus striatum, hippocampus, and prefrontal cortex) were collected and measured for biomarkers of antioxidant capacity, enzyme activity, and protein expression assessments. Green KF significantly increased ferric-reducing antioxidant potential (FRAP) in plasma and all brain regions compared with the bread-only diet. Gold KF increased plasma ascorbate concentration and trended towards reducing acetylcholinesterase activity in the brain compared with the bread-only diet. Pearson correlation analysis revealed a significant positive correlation between FRAP in the brain stem, prefrontal cortex, and hippocampus with the total polyphenol concentration of dietary interventions. These findings provide exploratory evidence for the benefits of KF constituents in augmenting the brain's antioxidant capacity that may support neurological homeostasis during oxidative stress.Item Glycaemic potency reduction by coarse grain structure in breads is largely eliminated during normal ingestion(Cambridge University Press on behalf of The Nutrition Society, 2022-05-28) Srv A; Mishra S; Hardacre A; Matia-Merino L; Goh K; Warren FJ; Monro JAThe hypothesis that coarse grain particles in breads reduce glycaemic response only if the particles remain intact during ingestion was tested. Three breads were formulated: (1) White bread (WB - reference), (2) 75 % of kibbled purple wheat in 25 % white bread matrix (PB) and (3) a 1:1 mixture of 37·5 % kibbled soya beans and 37·5 % of kibble purple wheat in 25 % white bread matrix (SPB). Each bread was ingested in three forms: unchewed (U), as customarily consumed (C) and homogenised (H). Twelve participants ingested 40 g available carbohydrate portions of each bread in each form, with post-prandial blood glucose measured over 120 min. Glycaemic responses to WB were the same regardless of its form when ingested. Unchewed PB had significantly less glycaemic effect than WB, whereas the C and H forms were similar to WB. Based on a glycaemic index (GI) of 70 for WB, the GI values for the C, U and H breads, respectively, were WB: 70·0, 70 and 70, PB: 75, 42 and 61, SPB: 57, 48 and 55 (%) (Least significant difference = 17·43, P < 0·05, bold numbers significantly different from WB). The similar glycaemic response to the H and C forms of the breads, and their difference from the U form, showed that the glycaemia-moderating effect of grain structure on starch digestion was lost during customary ingestion of bread. We conclude that the kibbled-grain structure may not effectively retard starch digestion in breads as normally consumed because it is largely eliminated by ingestive processes including chewing.Item Digestion characteristics of grains and flours for breads of low glycaemic potency : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Food Technology at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand(Massey University, 2020) Srinivasagam Ramasamy Venkateswaran, AkilaIn a survey of supermarket breads containing grain particles in New Zealand it was evident that grain structure reduced the starch digestibility of the breads, but the effect was small unless the inclusion rate of the large grain particles (>1 mm) was high (65% or more). The factors that influenced starch digestibility and glycaemic potency of grain particles of various sizes were studied in this research. It was shown that relatively large particle size and incomplete gelatinization of starch in the grains studied make them more resistant to digestion than others. From the knowledge gained in preliminary research, a range of kibbled (large grain particles) grain breads was developed containing 75% of large (> 2.8 mm) grain particles. The digestibility of starch in the prototype kibbled grain breads was examined in-vitro by simulated small intestinal digestion either with the grains intact or after homogenizing the breads. The results showed that the glycaemic potency of kibbled grains bread was low in comparison to white breads provided that the grain particles remained intact. However, when the kibbled grain breads were completely homogenized to eliminate grain structure the estimated glycaemic index (GI) increased by 31% and was similar to that calculated for white bread. An in-vivo study was conducted to compare the in-vitro estimates of glycaemic potency with the in-vivo findings and showed that the results from the in-vivo and in-vitro studies were highly correlated. This showed that endosperm structure played a significant role in reducing the glycaemic potency of the breads but only when the grain particles were large (>2.8 mm) and when they were swallowed intact. This suggested that the glycaemic potency of breads cannot be significantly reduced by adding high proportions of large grain particles as chewing reduces particle size and destroys much of the endosperm structure that would restrict digestion of the unchewed grain particles. Hence, increasing the proportion of large grain particles in bread is, in itself, ineffective in reducing the rate of starch digestion and consequently, blood glucose response in-vivo. However, in all cases, it was found that adding large grain particles to breads made in this work or sourced commercially increased the proportion of non-starchy ingredients (mostly insoluble and soluble fibre) so reducing the proportion of available starch for digestion, in the bread. The in-vitro results showed that reducing the proportion of available starch in the bread, either by increasing the proportion of whole-grain particles or by increasing the proportion of fibre or protein added to the breads is an effective strategy to reduce the glycaemic potency of breads. As expected from the earlier experiments, the glycaemic potency of the carbohydrates (GI) present in these breads was similar to that of a standard commercial white bread. Therefore, reducing the proportion of carbohydrate in bread formulations by increasing the proportion of protein and/or fibre is an effective strategy for reducing glycaemic potency of breads even though the glycaemic index, which shows the relative glycaemic potency of the available carbohydrate portion of the bread, is unchanged.Item Iodine and mid-life women living in Auckland, New Zealand who avoid bread : a thesis presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Human Nutrition at Massey University, Albany, Auckland, New Zealand(Massey University, 2019) Finlayson, JacquelineAim: To investigate if avoidance of iodine fortified bread products by mid-life women results in low iodine status following mandatory fortification of bread with iodised salt in New Zealand in 2009. Method: This cross-sectional study actively recruited women whose consumption of iodine fortified commercially baked bread was less than one slice per day. Assessment of iodine intake and status was determined via food frequency questionnaire (FFQ), three-day diet diary (3DDD) and 24-hour urine collection. Urinary iodine concentration (UIC) was determined and daily urinary iodine excretion and daily iodine intake was assessed. Results: Forty-six mid-life women living in Auckland were recruited for assessment of dietary intake of iodine, women were aged between 40-63 years and did not have diagnosed thyroid disease. The median urinary iodine concentration was 49 (35, 78) μg/l and indicates deficiency (Zimmermann, 2011). The median urinary iodine excretion was 108 (74, 154) μg/day and based on these results, the estimated median iodine intake of 120 (82, 171) μg/day was determined. This intake is below the recommended dietary intake (RDI) of 150 μg/day. Further, 91% of participants’ intake was below the estimated average requirement (EAR) of 100μg/day. Conclusion: From this small sample, the study showed that mid-life women living in NZ who avoid bread are at risk of inadequate dietary iodine intake. This group is unable to benefit from the mandatory fortification of bread with iodised salt. This highlights the importance of continued monitoring of the iodine fortification programme within New Zealand. Further research should investigate both thyroid function and dietary habits of low bread consumers in New Zealand in a larger sample. Also an attempt to raise awareness of the best sources of iodine in the NZ diet, to improve both dietary intake and status of iodine amongst at-risk groups such as this is highly recommended.Item High protein Chinese steamed bread : physico-chemical, microstructural characteristics and gastro-small intestinal starch digestion in vitro : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Food Technology at Massey University, Manawatū, New Zealand(Massey University, 2019) Mao, ShiyuanIn Asia, high protein low carbohydrate foods are in high demand because their consumption can provide improved nutritional benefits and help maintaining blood glucose levels close to normal. High protein versions of popular, highly consumed food products (staple foods) such as Chinese steamed bread (CSB) can be very useful to improve the health status of our populations. Thus, the objectives of this study were: to develop high protein Chinese steamed bread (HPCSB) using plant protein, dairy protein combinations. The high protein versions of the steamed breads were then compared with control 100% wheat flour based Chinese steamed bread for physico-chemical, microstructural, textural and in vitro starch digestion characteristics. In order to develop HPCSB, plant proteins (soy protein isolate) and dairy proteins (rennet casein and milk protein concentrate) were blended into wheat flour at two different levels. The addition of proteins has led to a change in colour characteristics (L*, a*, b*) and also resulted in a decreased specific volume of the breads. The textural characteristics measured through textural profile analysis of HPCSB showed an increased hardness and gumminess than control. The microstructure of HPCSB was observed to be more compact and had fewer air cells when observed through Scanning Electronic Microscopy. Furthermore, in vitro starch digestion of HPCSB depicted that the addition of proteins was capable of lowering the starch hydrolysis (%) and estimated glycaemic index (eGI), especially for RC I and RC II at significant levels. Addition of both proteins influenced the microstructure of HPCSBs, which in turn affected the textural and starch digestion properties. High protein Chinese steamed bread with low glycaemic properties can be prepared by critically selecting the protein sources with minimum changes in their physical and textural characteristics.Item Development of bread products containing Chordaria cladosiphon (mozuku) and its bioactive extract fucoidan : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Food Technology at Massey University, Albany, New Zealand(Massey University, 2017) Grubb, Stephen DanielMany seaweeds such as Chordaria cladosiphon, commonly known as mozuku, have been shown to contain several health promoting components such as dietary fibres, antioxidants, and a range of bioactive compounds. Mozuku is an edible brown seaweed which constitutes an important part of the diet of native Okinawans who enjoy long lives and consume the seaweed mixed with various seafoods and vegetables. Brown seaweeds and their isolated compounds, specifically a long-chain polysaccharide known as fucoidan, are reported to retard the formation and growth of various cancer cells in humans as well as having anticoagulation, antiviral and immunological activities. The present study developed wheat and gluten-free bread formulations containing mozuku powder in order to introduce its potential health effects into a staple food product thus making it more accessible to a wider range of consumers. Nutritional analysis of mozuku powder was determined by proximate analysis, fatty acid analysis and amino acid analysis, particle size distribution of the powder was also determined. Mozuku powder was added to modified wheat bread and developed gluten-free bread formulations with adjustments in levels of added salt. The effects of mozuku powder inclusion on bread quality were assessed by measuring changes in bread quality parameters, with standard methods being used to determine texture characteristics, crust and crumb colour, specific volume and water activity. Samples of gluten-free and wheat bread were evaluated by consumer sensory panellists for appearance, texture, aroma, taste, and overall acceptability using the 9-point hedonic scale. Microbial stability of wheat bread was determined by enumeration of total aerobic plate counts and, yeast and mould counts over the course of 3 days. Particle size distribution of mozuku powder showed that 90% of particle by weight were less than 500μm in diameter and that only 10% were less than 90μm. At these particle sizes, mozuku flakes were observable in the finished loaves. Nutritional analysis of mozuku powder contained (w/w, wet basis) 46.9% ash, 30.4% dietary fibre, 19.0% sodium, 5.4% protein, 4.7% available carbohydrates, 1.0% fat, 0.13% sugar and an overall energy content of 209.1 kJ/100 g. The most prevalent amino acids in mozuku powder were aspartate (0.59 mg/100 mg), glutamate (0.55 mg/100 mg), and leucine (0.42 mg/100 mg). Of the fatty acids, palmitic (69%) and oleic acid (13%) were present in highest concentrations however due to the total fat content of 1% they are unlikely to contribute to overall health. Addition of mozuku powder to both gluten-free and wheat bread formulations with adjusted salt levels, reduced specific volume and breadcrumb lightness of the products without affecting water activity. However, inclusion of the seaweed powder in formulations increased redness/yellowness in the bread crumb. There were no significant differences (P<0.05) in textural changes between wheat bread containing 1 and 2 % mozuku powder. However, wheat bread containing 2 % mozuku powder was characterised by decreased cohesiveness with no perceived changes in hardness, chewiness, resilience and springiness. Wheat bread containing 1% and 2% mozuku powder were well accepted by consumer sensory panellists receiving mean scores of 6.8 and 6.4 in overall acceptability on the 9-point hedonic scale. The addition of mozuku powder to wheat bread at 1% and 2% did not affect the microbial stability of the loaves during storage at 20°C for 3 days. With respect to gluten-free bread formulations, mozuku powder (up to 3%) did not affect texture (P<0.05), however, the inclusion of 4% mozuku powder in gluten-free bread increased hardness, chewiness and resilience. The gluten-free formulation containing a concentration of 2.5% mozuku powder was selected for consumer sensory trials due to its favourable quality results and received a mean score of 6.4 in overall acceptability on the 9-point hedonic scale thus indicating the product was well-liked by consumer sensory panellists. In this study, wheat bread and gluten-free bread containing variable levels of mozuku powder were successfully developed. Wheat bread containing 1% and 2% mozuku powder and gluten-free bread containing 2.5% mozuku powder had desirable textural characteristics, were well liked by consumer sensory panellists, and would be suitable for use in clinical trials.Item Development of gluten-free wrap bread : a thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Food Technology, Massey University, Albany, New Zealand(Massey University, 2016) Yang, TianyiGluten, the storage protein in wheat, barley and rye is associated with coeliac disease, wheat allergy and non-coeliac gluten sensitivity. The clinical symptoms include diarrhoea, anaemia, nausea, mouth sore and psychological symptoms and in some cases a gluten free diet may reduce the severity of irritable bowel disease (IBD). Gluten-related disorders can be prevented by the omission of gluten from the diet. Currently, there is an increasing demand for gluten-free foods due to consumer awareness of gluten-related disorders as well as people seeking to reduce possible dietary risks. New Zealand’s market for gluten-free foods is presently estimated at nearly four million US dollars. The development and production of gluten-free bread presents major technological challenges due to the role of gluten in developing the characteristic structure of both the raw dough and subsequent loaf texture. The main ingredients of bread are water and cereal flours which provide the primary structure to the baked product. Wheat grain is a traditional and common cereal that is milled into bread flour. When wheat flour is hydrated with water, gluten, the protein component hydrates to become a continuous cohesive viscoelastic network entrapping starch granules. This highly elastic network retains CO2 gas produced by yeast and sugar during leavening, thus forming the foam structure of bread. Gluten replacements that mimic the viscoelastic properties of gluten have been widely investigated for gluten free baked products including flatbread. Flatbread is popular for use in ready-to-eat convenient foods due to its large crust to crumb ratio. Wrap bread is a typical flatbread that can be rolled to hold various fillings. The manufacture of gluten-free wrap breads mainly suffers from poor rollability which is an essential property of the product. Thus, the present study investigated the development of gluten-free wrap bread (GFW) using xanthan gum, guar gum, carboxmethyl cellulose (CMC) as possible replacers for gluten, coconut oil was also added to improve flexibility of the bread. The formulations were investigated and optimised in four integrated phases. In phase 1, guar and xanthan gums were studied as possible gluten replacers during the development of GFWs. GFW samples (n = 16) made from four formulations under four baking conditions (200°C/2 min, 200°C/4 min, 220°C/2 min, 220°C/4 min) were analysed for baking weight loss and rollability. Baking weight loss was determined as moisture loss during baking, while rollability was measured as the ability of the freshly cooked bread to conform to shape (1-5 scale) as it was rolled around a 3-cm diameter wooden dowel (rod). A mixture of guar and xanthan gums (1:1) produced GFWs with better rollability and less baking weight loss than either gum alone. GFW samples baked at the higher temperature for the longer time generally had higher rollability. The highest average rollability score (3) obtained for this phase was considered low for wrap breads developed in phase 2. In phase 2, GFWs (n = 20) made from five formulations containing both xanthan and guar gums (1:1), CMC, and coconut oil were baked at 230°C for 2 or 4 min or at 240°C for 2 or 4 min. Freshly baked GFWs were analysed for baking weight loss, water activity, and colour. Rollability using 1 1-cm diameter dowel and visible mould growth of the GFWs were determined during storage for 28 days (4°C). Products produced in phase 2 had no visible mould growth during storage for 3 weeks (4°C). The inclusion of xanthan-guar gum, CMC and coconut oil into GFWs baked at 240°C/2 min may have contributed to high rollability and low baking weight loss. The effect of each test ingredient (xanthan-guar, CMC, and coconut oil) on the properties of FWs was the subject of phase 3. In phase 3, a basic formulation made with three levels (9 formulations) each of coconut oil, CMC and xanthan-gum gum were optimized using the Taguchi method to test the effect of each ingredient in the basic formulation. GFWs made using the 9 formulations were analysed by physical and sensory tests over three weeks storage at 4°C during which mould growth was assessed visually. Products in phase 3 had no visible mould growth during storage for three weeks (4°C). GFWs with high level of coconut oil (12%) were characterised by high baking weight loss, high whiteness index and a shorter firmer texture (high rupture force and low rupture distance). CMC (0.3%) and xanthan-guar gum (1%) may have contributed to low water activity, high rollability, high rupture distance and high rupture force during storage. Results indicated that 0.3% CMC and 1% xanthan-guar gum were the optimum levels for these ingredients. As the optimized levels of coconut oil could not be confirmed in this phase, three promising formulations with different levels of coconut oil (8, 10, 12%) were evaluated in phase 4. In phase 4, three products were produced using 3 optimised formulations from phase 3 and were analysed by physical tests and sensory evaluation during storage for two weeks (4°C). The 3 optimised formulations selected from phase 3 were: (1) base formulation plus 8% coconut oil, 0.3% CMC and 1% xanthan-guar gum; (2) base formulation plus 10% coconut oil, 0.3% CMC and 1% xanthan-guar gum; (3) base formulation plus 12% coconut oil, 0.3% CMC and 1% xanthan-guar gum. Among the three formulations, samples containing 12% coconut oil, 0.3% CMC and 1% xanthan-guar gum had the highest consumer sensory acceptability and were characterised by high rollability, and a more flexible texture (moderate rupture force and greater rupture distance) and low baking weight loss.