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    To disturb or not disturb : radio-telemetry based territory mapping and camera traps for monitoring cryptic species using Rakiura tokoeka (Apteryx australis australis) : a thesis presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Conservation Biology at Massey University, Albany, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2024) Feenstra, Emma
    Successful wildlife conservation is dependent on effective population monitoring. The objectives of monitoring can be multi-faceted, but population density is often coveted. However, estimating the density of species in which individuals cannot be identified is challenging without a complete census, which is rarely possible. In New Zealand, kiwi (Apteryx spp.) are morphologically and behaviourally cryptic species that are difficult to monitor, yet monitoring results are essential to their conservation. The gold standard of kiwi monitoring is territory mapping using radio-telemetry, yet this method had never been formally evaluated, and the alternative method is call counts, which are difficult to relate to population variables. Using Rakiura tokoeka (Apteryx australis australis) as my case study species, I implemented territory mapping with radio-telemetry at two novel locations on Rakiura/Stewart Island, one a pest-free island. My aim was to establish ‘known’ populations (minimum densities), and evaluate the traditional territory mapping method (Robertson, 2018) by comparing different ways of establishing territory boundaries (field-workers-estimates, convex 100% and concave polygons) and incorporating increasing numbers of locations by extending the length of the surveys. In these two study locations, and an additional two locations where historical territory mapping surveys of Rakiura tokoeka had provided minimum density estimates, I then trialled a novel method for monitoring kiwi populations, camera trap grids. I ran camera trap surveys for Rakiura tokoeka seasonally between 2018 and 2020 in the four locations, using the same study areas that were used for territory mapping. I used the data from the camera surveys in two ways, firstly for a relative abundance index (calculating camera trap rate), and secondly in a statistical abundance model that estimated point abundance and detection probability (Royle-Nichols, 2003). I also evaluated the use of radio-telemetry and camera traps for monitoring Rakiura tokoeka through the breeding season and providing information on the survival, growth, and dispersal of young Rakiura tokoeka. I found that territory mapping using radio-telemetry is an effective monitoring method for establishing minimum densities of Rakiura tokoeka, but that current methods could be improved. Convex polygon territory boundaries were similar to field-workers-estimate boundaries but could be applied more objectively and increasing the number of location fixes decreased density estimates. Camera trapping was an effective monitoring method for Rakiura tokoeka populations. Camera trap rates were an easy to apply index that is widely applicable to the many community and conservation groups working with kiwi that do not have access to radio-telemetry for monitoring. Camera trap rates indicated that the pest free island (Ulva Island) had lower detections of Rakiura tokoeka than the other three locations. This could have been due to lower densities of Rakiura tokoeka over some parts of the island, or lower detection probabilities. From the abundance model, estimates of density of Rakiura tokoeka at the four locations were not significantly different to those from territory mapping. This indicated that camera trap surveys could be used as a non-invasive alternative to territory mapping with radio-telemetry for Rakiura tokoeka, and potentially other kiwi species that has lower cost and requires less effort. I found the use of radio-telemetry and camera traps effective for monitoring different aspects of breeding behaviour, nesting, and chick variables, with the best use being a combination of the two methods. From the data collected on age structure, breeding and survival, I found no reason for immediate concern or management intervention for the Rakiura tokoeka population. This project shows the importance of questioning established methods, trialling new methods, combining methods, and considering whether the invasiveness of a method is warranted to meet the project objectives.
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    Corticosterone responses of captive and wild northern brown kiwi (Apteryx mantelli) : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Zoology at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2000) Adams, Dominic Christian
    Conservation strategies should work to mmnruse the occurrence of stressful situations, which are likely to result in chronic elevations of corticosterone. Consequently, identification of such situations would yield important information for conservation management. The objective of this study was to compare the basal levels of corticosterone and the corticosterone response of kiwi (Apteryx mantelli) in different management systems. Repeated blood sampling enabled us to describe the magnitude and duration of the corticosterone response, which is a measure of the sensitivity of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HP A) axis to stress. All kiwi responded to capture and handling with a rise in plasma levels of corticosterone, which peaked 30 min after capture. Corticosterone levels immediately after capture in wild kiwi were significantly higher than those of captive kiwi. This was most likely due to the method of capture, as wild kiwi took considerably longer to catch than captive kiwi. The plasma level of corticosterone 30 min after capture in nocturnal house kiwi was significantly lower than wild kiwi, but similar to those in outdoor penned kiwi. The cause of these differences is unclear. Nocturnal house kiwi may have become habituated to the presence of humans. Alternatively, it may be due to nocturnal house kiwi being held on a different light cycle to outdoor pen and wild kiwi. In addition, corticosterone levels in nocturnal house kiwi returned to basal levels 2 h after capture and handling. There was no significant difference in the binding affinity (I(I) and binding capacity (Bmax) of corticosteroid binding globulin (CBG) between nocturnal house, outdoor pen and wild kiwi. Furthermore, at no stage did maximum plasma levels of corticosterone exceed Bmax· Therefore, the Bmax of kiwi CBG was not a major factor when interpreting corticosterone responses of kiwi. Regularly handled kiwi do not respond to public display and handling with an increase in plasma levels of corticosterone. Therefore, these kiwi appear to have become habituated to this procedure. Elevated corticosterone levels in wild kiwi immediately after capture indicate that determining the precise location of wild kiwi is sufficient to induce a stress response. Therefore this practice should be kept to a minimum. Low basal levels of corticosterone indicate that captive kiwi have acclimatised to captivity. Furthermore, these results indicate that captive kiwi are not exposed to chronic elevations in corticosterone.
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    Tactile senses and foraging in birds, with emphasis on kiwi : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Ecology at Massey University, Manawatu, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2010) Cunningham, Susan Jane
    Probe-foraging birds must often rely on senses other than vision for prey-detection. One such sense is ‘remote touch’: the detection of vibration and pressure cues from prey within the substrate. Remote touch is mediated by the ‘scolopacid-type bill-tip organ’, which consists of a honeycomb of sensory pits in the bill-tip, containing clusters of mechanoreceptors. This organ was originally described in the neognathous shorebird family Scolopacidae, but was recently also discovered in paleognathous kiwi (Apterygidae): an example of convergent/parallel evolution. My aim was to discover how widespread this organ is among birds, compare its anatomy and function in foraging between kiwi and other probe-foraging birds and elucidate in detail the foraging behaviours and senses used by free-living kiwi. Within the thesis I compare the bill-tip organs of kiwi and shorebirds using material from the brown kiwi (Apterygidae: Apteryx mantelli) and bar-tailed godwit (Scolopacidae: Limosa lapponica). I provide the first description of the organ in a third family of birds, the ibises (Threskiornithidae), and give evidence that it may exist in simplified form in a fourth family, Rallidae. The Scolopacidae, Apterygidae, Threskiornithidae and Rallidae are widely separated on the avian phylogenetic tree. This suggests that the evolution of the scolopacid-type bill-tip organ and associated sense is favoured by a probe-foraging lifestyle. Foraging trials confirm the bill-tip organs of brown kiwi and Madagascar crested ibises (Lophotibis cristata urschi) are functional for remote touch. The ibises rely solely on remote touch to find buried prey, whereas brown kiwi use the sense in conjunction with olfaction. Free-living brown kiwi display no obviously visually-guided behaviours, instead using hearing (head-lifting in response to noises audible to the observer), olfaction (odour sensing behaviour, ‘sniffing,’ in the direction of these sounds) and touch. Kiwi tap ahead with their bill-tip when walking and move their facial bristles forward when foraging, forming a ‘net’ on the ground. The bristle follicles in kiwi (and some other insectivorous bird species) are innervated with Herbst corpuscles, suggesting tactile function. Female kiwi probe on average 30% deeper than males and juveniles, but there are no other differences in foraging behaviour between the sexes.
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    The triumphs, challenges and failures of young North Island brown kiwi (Apteryx mantelli) : a study of behaviour, growth, dispersal and mortality : a thesis in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Zoology at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2014) Wilson, Alexandra Louise
    North Island brown kiwi (NIBK, Apteryx mantelli), an endemic New Zealand species, are estimated to have declined by 90% from pre-human colonisation numbers. Currently, at least 60% of mortality is attributed to introduced mammalian predators, namely stoats (Mustela erminea) preying on chicks. Therefore, conservation effort focuses on predator trapping/killing, and hatching and rearing NIBK chicks in captivity and releasing them back into the wild. These efforts are resulting in increased recruitment of chicks into populations. However, little is known about the biology and behaviour of NIBK chicks in the wild and how this may affect management of these populations. Consequently, the aim of this study was to examine the ecology of young wild NIBK in a natural high density population with reduced predator diversity on Ponui Island. More specifically, the goal was to determine their growth rates, behaviour around the natal nest, dispersal and mortality, and how these factors may be influenced by environmental variables. During the 2010 - 2011 and 2011 - 2012 breeding seasons 29 young NIBK were observed from hatching until mortality or the end of 2012. Remote video cameras were set up outside nests to record behaviour. Juveniles were located daily as often as possible and location, habitat type, roost type and visibility were recorded. Growth measurements of weight, bill and tarsus lengths were taken monthly in the first season and weekly in the second. Invertebrate abundance and availability were also measured using pitfall traps and soil penetrability. Lastly, young NIBK found dead were preserved in formalin and sent for autopsy to accurately determine the cause of death. NIBK on Ponui Island were found to grow slower Kg = 0.0052 than a NIBK population measured previously at Lake Waikaremoana (Kg = 0.006) and 296 other bird species measured to date using the Gompertz growth curve. Females grew faster than males for the first 90 days after hatching. Sample size was too small to do further comparisons after this age. The rate of growth for body mass increased with age whereas the rate of growth for bill length and tarsus length decreased with increasing age, until at least 90 days of age. On a monthly scale, with increasing temperature food abundance significantly increased and soil penetrability declined; on a weekly scale temperature significantly affected growth rates with NIBK growing fastest between 19 - 22°C. I hypothesised that this was because with increasing temperature, food abundance increased, until a point where the soil became too hard for NIBK to probe for food resulting in the optimum growth rate between 19 - 22°C. In 161 nights of nest observation I observed seven interactions between a chick and the adults at the nest. These observations are interesting because NIBK were not previously known to interact with their young outside the nest. The behaviours are ambiguous and therefore I was unable to be sure of the context. Juveniles changed roost location most days and the movements between roost sites of individuals were highly variable. Daily dispersal distance was significantly affected by temperature and season, juveniles moved further in the warmer seasons and there was a positive relationship between dispersal distance and temperatures. Lastly, the mortality rate of NIBK in this population was high at 87.5% with most young NIBK dying from natural causes such as starvation and disease before 90 days of age. Cat predation was found to be higher at 30% relative to mainland populations where cat predation contributes to 5 - 9% of mortalities. This study highlights that population density, temperature, food availability and causes of mortality other than predation are important factors to consider when researching, conserving and translocating NIBK.
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    The effect of light on the behaviour of captive brown kiwi Apteryx mantelli : implications for captive management : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Masters of Science in Conservation Biology at Massey University, Manawatu, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2012) Grant, Roseanne Kate
    The impact of light intensity and spectrum on the behaviour of captive brown kiwi Apteryx mantelli was examined through behavioural observation. This topic was chosen as most animals have a significant response to light and there are currently no guidelines for the light regimes of nocturnal houses or brooder rooms that house brown kiwi. In the first experiment the amount of time that a kiwi spent in enclosure areas illuminated by four different colours was observed. The behaviour of the kiwi was not affected by colour but significantly more time was spent in enclosure areas that were darker and close to the edge of the enclosure. A second experiment investigated the amount of time that eight captive display kiwi spent in areas of their enclosure based on illumination intensity; again more time was spent in darker and peripheral areas as well as in areas of moderate to high structural coverage though these factors were interacting and did not singularly explain where time was spent in the enclosure. Finally the effect of early brooder light exposure on the later outdoor emergence times of nine neonatal brown kiwi was observed. Chicks that were housed for their first month of life in brooders diurnally lit by 150-200 lux emerged sooner after sunset once they were later housed in outdoor pens; this is compared with chicks housed in brooders brighter than 300 lux. Overall, light intensity and structure appeared to be the most significant environmental factors though much individual variation was found. Based on my results nocturnal houses that are no brighter than five lux and have at least 50% structurally covered and peripheral areas are most likely to be preferred by kiwi. Brooder boxes may need to be dimmed if a long-term behavioural effect is occurring from current brooder light regimes. These results support the widely held belief that kiwi do not rely on vision for information about their surroundings but may have good perception of light intensity as a result of having high rod photoreceptor density. It is more likely that kiwi rely on highly developed tactile and olfactory senses than vision. Results may be applicable to nocturnal mammals that also show high predator avoidance behaviour and/or do not rely on vision, such as some primates and rodents.
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    Ancient DNA analysis of Māori feather cloaks and kete : implications for conservation and culture : a thesis presented in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Molecular Biosciences at Massey University, Auckland, New Zealand, 2012
    (Massey University, 2012) Hartnup, Katie
    Feather cloaks (kakahu) and bags (kete), particularly those adorned with kiwi feathers, are treasured items or taonga to the Maori people of New Zealand. They are considered iconic expressions of Maori culture. Despite their status, much of our knowledge of the materials used to construct these artefacts, the provenance of these artefacts and the origins of these traditions, has been lost. We used ancient DNA methods to recover mitochondrial DNA sequences from 849 feather samples taken from 109 kiwi feathered cloaks (kahu kiwi) and 161 feather samples from 55 kiwi feathered kete (kete kiwi). We show that almost all (>99%) of the cloaks and all (100%) of the kete were constructed using feathers from North Island brown kiwi (Apteryx mantelli). Just one cloak was found to have been constructed using feathers from little spotted kiwi (Apteryx owenii). The remaining three species of kiwi (Apteryx haasti, Apteryx rowi and Apteryx australis) were not found in any of the cloaks and kete sampled. Molecular sexing of nuclear DNA from 92 feather cloak samples also revealed that the sex-ratio of birds deviated from a ratio of 1:1 observed in reference populations, with a male skew observed. Additionally, a reference database of 185 North Island brown kiwi mitochondrial control region DNA sequences was constructed, comprising samples collected from 26 North Island locations together with data available from the literature. For contemporary populations, we saw a phylogeographic structuring of haplotypes using both SAMOVA and Nested Clade Analysis into Eastern, Northern and West and Central populations. Utilising this structuring, it was possible to infer the provenance of 847 kiwi feathers from 108 cloaks and 153 kiwi feathers from 52 kete. A surprising proportion of cloaks (15%) and some kete (5.5%) were found to contain feathers from different geographic locations providing evidence of either kiwi trading among Maori tribes (iwi), tribal displacement, or organised hunting trips into other tribal areas. The data also suggests that the east of the North Island was the most prolific of all kiwi cloak and kete making areas, accounting for over 50% of all cloaks analysed and over 58% of all kete. This could indicate that the East of the North Island was the epicentre for this cultural tradition. Also, the structuring observed in the reference database will prove to be useful to conservationists, such as the New Zealand Department of Conservation, when deciding strategies to maintain populations of New Zealand’s most iconic bird. The genetic analysis of these treasured items has been invaluable in enriching our knowledge and rebuilding their lost histories. Additionally, genetic data from historical items can aid our understanding or how populations change overtime, thus aiding conservation of valuable species.
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    Characterisation of limb development and locomotion in the brown kiwi (Apteryx mantelli) : a thesis presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Zoology at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2010) Jones, Erica Anne
    This thesis covers broad topics concerning limb growth and development and their effects on locomotion in the brown kiwi (Apteryx mantelli). I begin by describing the morphological features of a collection of unknown-age wild kiwi embryos from early development to point of hatch. Using these features, I assign developmental stages to each embryo and compare the progress of development to the same-staged ostrich and chicken embryos. Measurements of the hindlimb, bill and crown-rump length are used to develop an aging scheme based on comparisons with the ostrich and the chicken. The ostrich model and chicken model create age predictions for the unknown aged kiwi embryos. One kiwi embryo was of known age and both models gave identical predictions for this marker embryo, but gave differing predictions for all other kiwi embryos. Using captive-reared kiwi chicks, I characterise hindlimb, bill and bodyweight growth from the time of hatch to 3 months of age. Growth patterns are very linear within this time period for all measurements but bodyweight. Female kiwi hatch with longer bills than males, but the growth of both sexes converges by the end of the 3-month period. Growth of bodyweight in the males slows earlier than in females. Bodyweight and bill length were then compared to a wild population of kiwi. Captive-reared chicks were found to hatch with shorter bills than the wild birds and to increase in bodyweight at a faster rate than wild birds. Rapid weight gain has been implicated in developmental limb deformities in other precocial and long-legged birds and has the potential to produce similar results in captive kiwi. I further studied the movement of the hindlimb during locomotion in two adults and one juvenile kiwi by filming them while they were walking on a treadmill. Kinematic parameters were measured from the video recordings and compared to overground parameters from another study. Similarity between the treadmill and overground locomotor parameters validates the use of a treadmill in studying kiwi locomotion. None of the birds achieved the theoretical transition from a walk to a run at a duty factor of 0.5. After normalising for size, the juvenile showed a longer stride length and lower stride frequency with increasing speed than the adults. Lateral head oscillations were observed during the stride cycle, which I propose having a sensory function as well as a biomechanical one.