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Identifying characteristics and drivers of the maize value chain in Shan State, Myanmar : a dissertation presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Agribusiness at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
(Massey University, 2023) Htoo, Kyan
As an agrarian country, Myanmar’s economy largely relies on the agriculture sector. Maize is the second most important cereal crop after rice in Myanmar in terms of growing area and export volume and value. Maize is not a staple food crop, but is grown primarily for export and domestic poultry production. Shan State is the most important region for maize in Myanmar, and about 50% of the total maize growing area is in this State. It was expected that the maize-growing areas continue to increase as there were no better alternative crops for maize farmers in Southern Shan State, despite challenges such as the unpredictable dominant export market and price fluctuations. However, there had been little knowledge of why there was a robust growth of maize amid the challenges. A single case study approach was applied to explore the characteristics of the maize value chain and the factors influencing the chain. In this study, the qualitative method was used to learn how and why the maize value chain in Shan State was performing as it did. In this respect, semi-structured interviews were used to explore the answers to those questions. Taunggyi township, a major maize township in Southern Shan State, was selected as the primary research area, whereas other types of actors from other townships throughout the chain were also selected to be interviewed as research participants. For example, exporters from Muse in Northern Shan State exporting maize to China via cross-border trade, key informants from Muse Commodity Exchange Centre, an exporter from Yangon who dealt with overseas exports, and an exporter from Yangon who exports maize to Thailand via cross-border trade were interviewed. Purposive and snowballing sampling methods were applied to select participants. The thematic analysis method was used to analyse the collected data. Despite price fluctuations, maize farmers were willing to continue to grow and increase the area of maize grown because of the certainty of the market for maize and the relative uncertainty of markets for other potential alternative crops. In addition, maize had a relatively low labour demand, easy access to improved varieties of maize and limited access to improved varieties of other alternative crops, easy access to credit, mechanization, and suitability for large-scale production. Therefore, the growth of maize production is likely to continue in the foreseeable future. The price farmers received for maize fluctuated significantly, yet remained relatively high compared to other crops, and remained certain. The Shan State maize market relied strongly on an unstable dominant export market which accounted for close to 90% of Myanmar maize exported to the Chinese market. In the 2018-2019 season (at the time of data collection) the border trade with China stalled in large part due to policies of the Chinese Government, and there was an expectation that market access would resume. During the period when access to the dominant export market was stopped, the demand for maize was stabilised through domestic maize buyers buffering the stock of maize and because of the emergence of an alternative export market. This provided maize farmers with the certainty of market. Furthermore, an international company, which has a significant stake in the maize value chain in Myanmar influenced the access to the alternative export market. Informal relationships were dominant between the actors throughout the maize value chain in Shan State. Most transactions between the actors were informal and based on reciprocity. Local wholesalers provided credit to farmers who sold their maize to the wholesaler. Most large-scale farmers stored maize at their wholesalers’ storage houses. Both informal and formal agreements existed between wholesalers and feed factories and/or exporters. However, if there was a risk associated with a formal contract, particularly due to price fluctuation, wholesalers helped each other to mitigate the risk in an informal way based on their social relationships. Even the transactions between foreign buyers and the exporters from cross-border trade were made mainly through informal agreements. Only formal agreements were used for the transactions between foreign buyers and the exporters from the emerging and relatively small overseas trade. Informal relationships reduced risks, transaction costs, and the amount of investment capital in trading maize. There was a tremendous growth of maize in Myanmar over a couple of decades despite a lack of Government support. There was no Government policy specific to the maize sector, whereas there were general policies or rules and regulations for the whole agriculture sector, which probably had impacts on the maize industry. This was probably because maize is not a staple food crop in Myanmar like rice. Moreover, there were no formal quality standards for maize. However, despite some issues, transactions of maize were carried out quite smoothly because the domestic and international cross-border markets, which were major markets for Myanmar maize, did not necessarily require it, except for overseas export markets. This study identified some important potential areas to be improved by policy interventions. First, formal quality standards should be set for the stable market access of the maize sector. Second, the formal banking sector should practice flexible repayment schedules for better convenience for the farmers. Moreover, the formal banking sector should focus on small-scale farmers as they had more difficult access to informal credit than large-scale farmers. Third, the Myanmar Government should take account of a policy, which facilitates the improvement of infrastructures such as roads, drying machines, and storage facilities for reducing transaction costs and improving the quality of maize. In this way, the Government policy will support the sustainable development of the maize sector.
Extrapolating incomplete animal population and surveillance data for use in national disease control : examples from Myanmar and New Zealand : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Veterinary Epidemiology, School of Veterinary Science at Massey University, Manawatu, New Zealand
(Massey University, 2019) van Beest van Andel, Mary
National level databases of animal numbers, locations, and movements provide the essential foundations for disease outbreak investigations, disease control, and disease preparedness activities. These activities are particularly important for managing and mitigating the risks of high impact exotic disease outbreaks like foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) as well as other economically important endemic diseases, which can significantly impact international trade and food security. However, many countries worldwide either lack national animal databases entirely or have multiple, fragmented databases that provide an incomplete picture of animal demographics. Consequently, there has been growing interest in developing novel methods to infer missing information on animal populations from other data sources, to quantify the extent of missing information, and to understand the impacts of missing information on the predictions made from national disease simulation models. This thesis explores these issues in the context of an FMD free country (New Zealand) as well as a country with endemic FMD (Myanmar). In Chapter 3, regression models were used to predict farm-level animal populations in New Zealand based on available data on farm type and location. When the results were compared against a subset of validated animal population data, the predictions at the farm level were found to be inaccurate especially for small-scale farms that keep animals for personal consumption or as a hobby. These properties are of particular interest to animal health authorities as they have been identified as at risk for exotic disease outbreaks. In Chapter 4, the impacts of having inaccurate herd size data on the predictions made by an FMD disease spread simulation model were explored. The results were analysed using cox proportional hazard models and logistic regression models, which showed that simulations run using actual animal population data indicated different optimal control strategies for FMD than models run with imperfect data and these effects differed by the region in New Zealand where the hypothetical disease outbreak was seeded. In Chapter 5, high-resolution local survey data and low-resolution national remote sensor data were used alone and in combination to predict the location of FMD positive villages in Myanmar, which were identified by serological sampling conducted as part of a large OIE funded research project in 2016. The performance of both random forest models and logistic regression models were explored using training and testing data sets. Bovine populations and proximity to cattle markets were found to be significant risk factors for FMD seropositivity and the logistic regression models performed as well as machine learning techniques. Chapter 6 compared verbal reports of FMD outbreaks from village headman and householders against the serological test results from their villages to determine whether using public reports is a viable alternative to conducting resource intensive serological surveys for estimating FMD prevalence in Myanmar. Although village headmen proved to be a better source of FMD reports compared to householders, the verbal reports were still not as accurate as serological tests in an endemic situation where both sensitivity and specificity of observing clinical signs can be complicated by endemic stability and concurrent outbreaks of other diseases. The work in both chapters 5 and 6 was carried out using data from activities of the Livestock Breeding and Veterinary Department and the OIE and as such separate human ethics approval was not required for the surveys described. Chapter 7 addressed the issue of estimating the scale of missing data in a national database by comparing intensively collected interview information with recorded movements at the farm level for farms involved in New Zealand’s Mycoplasma bovis eradication programme. The results showed that dairy farmers often failed to record almost half of high risk movements including leased bulls, calves sent offsite for rearing, and adult cattle sent away for winter grazing. It was also estimated that approximately 60% of animals arriving at abattoirs in New Zealand have multiple movements missing from their life history in the National Animal Identification and Tracing system (NAIT) database. This missing information had a significant impact on the ability of government and industry to effectively respond to the outbreak. However, a positive finding from this study was that the rates of missing data are decreasing over time. Overall, this thesis demonstrated the importance of enhancing efforts to collect accurate and up-to- date national animal population and movement data. For New Zealand, the changes required to improve the national farm animal data landscape include improving compliance with the legislated requirements to record animal movements and modifying the existing databases to record information on the health status of animals against a unique animal identifier. A unique farm identifier is required at the national level and should be agreed upon by industry representatives, government and researchers. The combination of animal health data associated with the unique animal identifier and a single current farm identifier for all farms will result in a robust animal health and biosecurity system.
Upgrading options for Myanmar fresh ginger value chains : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of AgriCommerce, School of Agriculture and Environment, Massey University, Manawatu Campus, New Zealand
(Massey University, 2019) Phoo, Phoo
The agriculture sector plays a significant role in the economy of Myanmar and contributes 32% to the country’s gross domestic product (GDP). The current extent of the agriculture area in Myanmar is approximately 12 million hectares, occupying 18% of total cultivated land resources. Ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc) is one of the export crops in Myanmar with the annual production volume of 66,085 tons from an approximate cultivation area of 4,985 hectares. It is grown by smallholder farmers and offers major economic opportunity for more than 6,000 households in the Southern Shan State of Myanmar. Myanmar ginger production is only 3% of the total world ginger production. Although world demand for ginger is growing, exports from Myanmar are declining with 60 % of production has to be exported to low price regional markets with unstable demand and volatile prices. Hence, Myanmar needs to find out how to upgrade the fresh ginger value chains to export to high price markets such as the USA and the EU. This current study aims for a better understanding of the existing Myanmar fresh ginger value chain from production to end markets in overseas. Therefore, the present study investigated the constraints and opportunities of current Myanmar fresh ginger value chains along with identifying the upgrading options. Data from primary and secondary sources were used in this study by using a qualitative approach. Data were collected through semi-structured interviews, mailed questionnaires and document collection methods. Being a non-priority crop in Myanmar, the ginger sector has been paid little attention by the Government and hence, very limited research and development on the Myanmar ginger sector has been conducted. In order to export fresh ginger to high price markets, Global-GAP or organic certificates are required. The major constraints faced by the ginger value chain actors for achieving those certificates are found to be the long-term use of chemical herbicides and lack of technical awareness of integrated pests and disease management protocol. Apart from that, the present status of harvesting and post-harvest handling practices is also a constraint for achieving those certificates. An unreliable export market, high price volatility and cashflow constraints are major limitations faced by the value chain actors. Exchange rate volatility is a key constraint faced by exporters. Cold chain facilities and limited access to international banks, are both major issues for exporting Myanmar fresh ginger to high price markets. Introduction of appropriate financial market based instruments to overcome cashflow constraints would encourage farmers to adopt better production practices and timing of harvest. Additionally, the government participation in multi-disciplinary research, along with NGO support in the ginger sector, is found to be essential for upgrading the fresh ginger value chain in Myanmar. Increased collaboration between the public and private sectors, such as improvement of logistic facilities in the country, is recommended to improve the Myanmar fresh ginger sector. Such collaboration should assist in the aim for effective exports to the high price and reliable markets in the near future.
Health justice for all : the development of alternative health system capabilities in the conflict-affected context of Shan State, Myanmar : a thesis presented in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Development Studies at Massey University, Manawatū, New Zealand
(Massey University, 2018) Bell, Sharon Margaret
As the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development advances, it is vital to determine how conflict impacts on the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in conflict-affected contexts. The United Nations (UN) regards conflict as the leading risk to development progress as these contexts have high rates of poverty and limited access to crucial healthcare services. Shan State, Myanmar is one such context, facing a critical shortage in its health workforce, considered one of the building blocks of an effective health system. Approaches to building health workforce capabilities can meaningfully contribute towards meeting SDG 3 – ‘to ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages’, and consequently, health justice for conflict-affected communities. This research aims to understand how the approaches taken by an international nongovernmental organisation (INGO) support the development of alternative health system capabilities in a conflict-affected context. A global development agenda of state- and peace-building has meant that INGOs have been criticised for undermining state legitimacy. Meanwhile, non-state armed groups (NSAGs) in areas like Shan State, Myanmar, have established alternative regimes which seek self-determination as well as attempting to provide for the social and economic wellbeing of their people. However, little is known about how a partnership between an INGO and a NSAG contributes toward enabling alternative health system development in these contexts. This research contributes to new ways of understanding this through the development of a capabilities framework for health system development in conflict-affected contexts. This was used to analyse findings from the qualitative case study of an INGO’s health workforce training programme on the Myanmar-Thailand border. The research found that a positive partnership between the INGO and the NSAG has played a crucial role in enabling the workforce capabilities of the alternative health system, leading to promising improvements in health outcomes in communities. However, the effectiveness of the programme is restricted by the INGO’s reliance on volunteerism for staffing, where expatriate medical volunteers are selected based on their availability, rather than the appropriate skills and experience for this context. The international aid community has also reduced its funding for cross-border development programmes in Myanmar which has constrained the activities of the INGO and the NSAG. For Myanmar to achieve health justice and SDG 3, supporting health system development that focuses on improving health outcomes needs to be a priority for the international community.
An exploratory value chain analysis for Burmese pickled tea (LAPHET) : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Masters of AgriCommerce in Agribusiness, Institute of Agriculture and Environment, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
(Massey University, 2016) Thar, So Pyay
Laphet (pickled tea) is a well-known traditional cuisine of Myanmar consisting of tea leaves fermented into a pickle. It has a unique taste different from tea used for drinking and has health benefits. Despite the fact that pickled tea is a popular food in Myanmar, no research has been done to analyse its value chain and evaluate its potential in the global market. This study is an exploratory research and aims to examine the value chain of pickled tea from production to the final consumer and to evaluate how to improve the quality in the value chain. In addition, the improvements to the integrity to the pickled tea value chain are addressed. The value chain analysis revealed the major actors in the pickled tea value chain and described the process as tea leaves pass through several intermediaries with value being added at each stage before reaching the end consumer. The chain is governed by wholesalers and manufacturers who have capital advantage over the other chain actors. Therefore, farmers get the lower share of the price margin. This study shows the domestic pickled tea value chain and it describes the upgrades to the chain if it is to be upgraded. Pickled tea is a profitable industry and has high potential in the global market. However, there are considerable weaknesses and challenges to developing a sustainable pickled tea industry from both farm and market perspective. Supply issues such as availability of tea leaves, quality and consistency of the pickled tea, and effective grading along the value chain were addressed. Food safety and traceability is also a key area of concern. The study recommends that value chain upgrading can help improve the effectiveness and efficiency of the chain. Generally, the findings suggest that strategies aiming to strengthen the linkages within the value chain, collective marketing, and improved processing technologies can enhance the development of the pickled tea value chain in Myanmar. Therefore, policy aiming at increasing farmers’ access to modern technology and inputs, developing infrastructure, cooperative development, and improving extension systems are recommended to accelerate the chain’s development.
Economic sanctions as a means to enforce human rights in Burma (Myanmar) : a thesis presented in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of Master of Philosophy in Development Studies
(Massey University, 2004) Thin, Ma Kyi Kyi
Since the end of the Cold War, human rights has become a central focus of international relationships, especially the relationship between developed countries (the West) and developing countries (the Rest). Burma is one of the developing countries whose relationship with Western governments is premised on the issue of human rights. In the pursuit of human rights enforcement, the United States and the European Union employ economic sanctions against Burma. While economic sanctions are designed to encourage a transition to democratic rule and a greater respect for human rights, studies show that little attention has been paid to the effectiveness of such measurements. In this study, a literature review and field research are carried out as an effort to assess the effectiveness of economic sanctions in Burma.
Developing sustainable soil fertility in southern Shan State of Myanmar : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Soil Science at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
(Massey University, 2001) Tin Maung Aye
Literature review and a farm survey results indicated that the productive capacity of the Red Earths and Yellow Earths (Acrisols in FAO/UNESCO system) in Southern Shan State, Myanmar, continues to decline as poor, near-subsistence, farmers usually fallow-crop these soils and are unable, for economic reasons, to provide the necessary fertilisers and crop management strategies that could improve and maintain soil fertility. This thesis reports on investigations undertaken to determine ways in which the fertility of these soils can be improved in an economical and sustainable manner. A preliminary soil survey confirmed that soils of the Southern Shan State study area had low soil P status, low pH, low SOM (low reserves of N, P and S) and low base saturation, which are likely constraints to crop production on these marginal soils. A farmers' survey indicated farmers were aware of the P availability and soil acidity problems, however, they use low levels of N, P, K fertilisers, green manure and liming material because their economic margins were insufficient to buy expensive P fertilisers and liming materials. Preliminary glasshouse trials were conducted to establish the key soil fertility constraints. These trials included testing the P responsiveness of crops (pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan), rice bean (Vigna umbellata) and upland rice (Oryza sativa L)), the influence of liming materials on legume growth (black gram (Vigna mungo), cowpea (vigna unguriculata), kidney bean (Phaseolus vulgaris), lentil bean (Culinaris lentil), pigeon pea, soybean (Glycine max), stylosanthes (Stylosanthes quyanensis)), and the effectiveness of green manures for building SOM and P reserves in the Red Earths and Yellow Earths. The glasshouse trials confirmed that low P status is the factor most limiting to crops particularly legumes grown in the Yellow Earths. Upland rice, however, did not respond to added P suggesting that upland rice may not be a suitable test plant for evaluating the relative P effectiveness of fertilisers in the Red Earths and Yellow Earths. This pot experiment with the upland rice trial also demonstrated that indigenous Myanmar phosphate rock (MPR) and Farmyard manure (FYM) were ineffective P sources for raising soil plant-available P in the short-term. Local dolomite, however, was an effective liming material and when added with P enhanced the nodule formation of pigeon pea. Laboratory incubation studies showed that incorporating organic amendments (FYM, pigeon pea and upland rice residues) into the Red Earths and Yellow Earths significantly increased soil organic C, improved soil pH buffering, increased the total P content and increased labile-P fractions that could be used for plant growth. The Walkley and Black organic C determination can be used as a suitable 'low tech', portable method for the determination of organic C to monitor soil organic matter levels. Based on the results from the preliminary glasshouse trials, field trials were designed to establish relationships between P fertiliser form, application rate and soil P test levels for maize (Zea mays) and legumes (rice bean and black gram) grown in a Yellow Earth. In soils with initial Olsen-P values of approximately 8 kg P kg-1 soil, two maize field trials consistently indicated that near maximum yield (90%) of maize can be obtained by application of water-soluble P fertiliser (Triple superphosphate, TSP) at 40 to 50 kg P ha-1 in year one and reapplication of TSP at 25 kg P ha-1 in year two. Phosphate supplied as FYM, Tithonia diversifolia, Chinese partially acidulated phosphate rock (CPAPR) and Sechura reactive phosphate rock (SPR) were agronomically less effective as short-term P sources for maize than TSP, with TSP substitution ratio of 0.1, 0.17, 0.61 and 0.07 respectively at an application of 40 kg P ha-1 rate. A legume-wheat rotation field trial showed that rice bean (the legume) yield was significantly increased by the application of TSP at 40 kg P ha-1 plus local dolomite. Subsequently, rice bean plots fertilised with 40 kg P ha-1 as TSP produced the largest wheat grain yields in the Yellow Earth. In all trials the Olsen-P test was a suitable soil P test for providing an index of plant-available P. Olsen-P values at which optimum crop growth occurred (90% maximum yield) ranged between 30 to 40 mg P kg-1 in the Red Earths and Yellow Earths, depending on the season, plant age when harvested and crop grown. Use of the sulphuric acid acidulated CPAPR and elemental S (S°) with SPR confirmed that plant growth in the Yellow Earths was very responsive to sulphur application. Chinese PAPR can be used as a cost-effective P and S fertiliser to increase the crop yield in these Red Earths and Yellow Earths, particularly where S is also deficient. Use of local dolomite (2.5 t ha-1) in the field trials caused significant increases in soil pH in the first season and in the legume-wheat trials resulted in increases in legume yield. The research findings on soil P testing, alternative P sources and liming materials presented in this thesis are discussed in terms of the role they might have in the establishment of sustainable agriculture practice in Southern Shan State, Myanmar. Future research directions that should be taken to realise the productivity of these soils and farming systems are also discussed.

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