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    Healthy eating in 10-13 year old children : understanding choice using the theory of planned behaviour and the role of parental influence : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Health Psychology at Massey University
    (Massey University, 2005) Hewitt, Allison Melinda
    Currently, one fifth of New Zealand children are overweight and one tenth are obese. The majority of the literature reports that an increase in the intake of energy-dense foods, particularly those containing fats and sugar, are a contributing factor in the development of overweight among children. This study utilised a social cognitive model, the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) to examine the influence of behavioural beliefs, subjective norm, perceived behavioural control, and attitudes towards healthy eating on a sample of 10-13 year old children. The model examined their intentions to consume particular types of food, and whether intention, in turn, predicted dietary behaviour (self-reported consumption of healthy food items). In addition, the role of parental influence on children's eating behaviour was examined. Two hundred and sixty one children, comprising males and females aged between 10 and 13 years old, from two types of school, completed a questionnaire, which focussed on five different food groups. Parents and caregivers of the children also completed a questionnaire examining their child-feeding practices. The TPB explained 65% of the variance in Ashhurst School children's behavioural intentions and 43% of Palmerston North Intermediate Normal School (PNINS) children's intentions. Intentions accounted for 47% (PNINS) and 28% (Ashhurst) of the explained variance in dietary behaviour. Parental influence did not contribute significantly to the model. For PNINS children, behavioural intention partly mediated the relationship between subjective norm, perceived behavioural control and dietary behaviour and fully mediated the relationship between behavioural belief and dietary behaviour. For Ashhurst School children, behavioural intention mediated the relationship between attitude and dietary behaviour. The results of this study support the use of the TPB in identifying healthy eating intentions and behaviour in school age children. These results however, do not support the addition of parental influence, measured by the Child Feeding Questionnaire, as a predictor of children's dietary behaviour over and above the TPB.
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    Food preferences and food choices of eleven and twelve year old children as they relate to their television viewing habits : a thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of requirements for the degree of Master of Science (Nutritional Science) at Massey University
    (Massey University, 2004) Gordon, Cushla
    The aim of this study was to examine the relationship between children's television viewing habits and their food preferences and food choices. The study was divided into two parts. Part one was an analysis of the frequency and content of food advertisements aired during children's television. Part two involved interviews with children and their parents to examine their eating, television and physical activity habits. From this the relationship between what they were viewing in advertisements and their food preferences and choices could be established. The children, forty in total, were aged eleven or twelve and were chosen from two Auckland Intermediate schools. Comparisons were made between boys and girls. The research showed that New Zealand children, through advertising, are constantly exposed to a variety of foods that fall within a very narrow range. These foods are predominantly individual servings of snacks or pre-prepared, pre-packaged foods that are high in saturated fat and/or sugar and/or salt. These foods are in direct contrast to the dietary recommendations provided by the Ministry of Health (1997) of eating a variety of foods from all the food groups and only eating treat foods now and then. Advertisers within New Zealand are not adhering to the Advertising Codes of Practice, particularly with regard to repetition and duration of advertisements. Thus, self-regulation within this industry does not appear to be effective. From part two of the research it was possible to conclude that television food advertisements do have a significant influence on children. This is through creating a desire in the child to try the foods they have seen advertised and as a result of viewing the advertisement, asking their parents to purchase the food. This effect was most likely to be for the life of the advertisement rather than long-term. Children in the study were watching on average just under two hours of television a day and the more television they were watching, thus the more advertisements they were viewing, the more they wanted to try foods they had seen advertised. More of the children's time was spent viewing television than engaged in formal or informal physical activity. Many were overweight or at risk of overweight, however this was not correlated with television viewing. Overall, television food advertisements influenced children through making the food look appealing and exciting and thus creating a desire to try the food. Children were also influenced by both the qualities of the food, such as taste and appearance, and the people and the environment around them. The research did support the finding in other studies that there is a correlation between children's food likes, dislikes and choices, however it is important to place the influence of advertising in the context of the numerous other influences on children's food choices.
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    An investigation of fruit and vegetable intakes in Whangarei schoolchildren : do 5+ a day educational resources make a difference? : a thesis submitted to fulfill the requirements for the degree of Master of Science (Nutritional Science), Massey University
    (Massey University, 2004) Linklater, Keri
    Fruits and vegetables contain a multitude of nutritive and non-nutritive substances that are beneficial for good health. The Ministry of Health (MOH) recommends consumption of at least five servings of fruits and vegetables daily. This is to enhance wellbeing and to maximise the potential protection against the chronic diseases with which low intakes of these specific foods are associated (MOH, 2003a). The 2002 National Children's Nutrition Survey (CNS02), however, reported that large numbers of New Zealand's young people are eating less than these recommendations (MOH, 2003b). Effective strategies to increase fruit and vegetable intakes in this population group are required. Numerous school-based programmes specifically designed to increase the intake of fruit and vegetables have been implemented in America and the United Kingdom with mixed results (Perry et al, 1998; Reynolds et al, 2000; DOH, 2002; Edmunds & Jones, 2003). In New Zealand, the national 5+ A Day campaign encourages people to consume the targeted amounts of fruits and vegetables every day and has been introduced into numerous child early learning centres and primary schools throughout the country (United Fresh, 2003). Evaluation of this programme is necessary to determine its effectiveness, to identify areas for improvement, and to provide current updates, which may aid the development of health education policies. The present study aimed to determine what, if any, difference the 5+ A Day resource material provided to primary schools makes on the dietary intakes and nutritional knowledge of children who are exposed to these resources (intervention) compared to those who are not (control). Children were recruited from five Whangarei primary schools (2 controls, 3 interventions). Data on dietary intake, nutritional knowledge and physical activity were collected from children using a food frequency questionnaire (FFQ) and a knowledge/physical activity questionnaire (CNKQ). Parents or guardians of the children also completed a questionnaire similar to the CNKQ, which included questions about shopping and barriers to increasing fruit and vegetable intakes. The findings of this study show that Whangarei children are consuming fruit and vegetables above MOH recommendations. Intakes of fruits and vegetables and nutrition knowledge do not differ significantly between control and intervention groups. Children who did receive the specific 5+ A Day resources, however, are more aware of a connection between food and certain health conditions i.e. general health, heart disease and cancer. The 5+ A Day message is well recognised by both children and parents regardless of whether or not the school was registered to receive 5 + A Day resources. It is likely that the widespread promotion of the programme via various channels of communication has contributed to enhanced awareness and reported intakes of fruit and vegetables. Additionally, the intensity to which health and nutrition activities are delivered in school, the degree to which environmental changes are made to increase the availability of fruit and vegetables, and the involvement of parents and the wider community are issues that may influence whether or not children increase their intake of these foods.