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Putting conservation medicine into practice : examples from three endemic New Zealand bird species : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Conservation Biology at Massey University
(Massey University, 2005) Low, Matthew Richard
Conservation medicine is increasingly being viewed as an important component of conservation biology. While programmes focussing on wildlife health are generally limited to controlling the spread of infectious diseases, there is a need to evaluate the impacts of non-infectious diseases: in particular, a critical examination of invasive management practices is overdue. Marking or tagging animals for identification is one of the most common management tools employed by conservation managers, and yet their impacts have rarely been quantified. In the kakapo, Strigops habroptilus, metallic bands applied to the tarsus were implicated in joint problems in the banded leg; in contrast to this, subcutaneously implanted passive integrated transponders appear to be safe and effective in both adults and chicks. In the North Island robin, Petroica longipes, leg bands were directly implicated in leg injuries at a rate of 2% of adults per year. The most common injury was a result of the birds trapping their hallux (back toe) between a band and their leg; this forced the leg into a flexed position and resulted in tissue damage. To accurately interpret clinical pathology data collected in wildlife health assessments, reference ranges for haematological and biochemical data should be generated for each species. In the kakapo, blood samples from 1996 and 2002 allowed these references to be produced; however, this exercise highlighted limitations that are often underappreciated in conservation medicine. Many factors can influence the results: two of these being sample storage and laboratory processing methods. Many conservation programmes cannot collect, store and process samples in an ideal environment and, thus, comparisons between ideally generated reference ranges and data from individuals collected in the field may be spurious. Similarly, opportunistic carcass collection and post-mortem examination provides valuable identification of disease agents, but the findings are difficult to interpret in terms of their importance or prevalence within populations. The description of aspergillosis in a North Island robin is a case in point. The movement of animals for conservation purposes - translocations - is becoming widespread, and has the potential to introduce diseases into disease-free areas; the stitchbird, Notiomystis cincta, is currently the focus of conservation efforts that rely on translocations. Two poorly-understood diseases were examined: facial dermatitis and sub-lingual oral fistulas. The prevalence of facial dermatitis was influenced by season and sex, with males showing a higher prevalence of the condition than females during the breeding season. Histopathology, mite isolation and a therapeutic drug trial all suggest that a burrowing mite, Knemidocoptes spp is responsible for the condition. Sub-lingual oral fistulas are more widespread than previously thought, as they are not limited to birds with obvious tongue protrusions through the tissue deficit in the lower mandible. Evidence supports the hypothesis that these fistulas are acquired after fledging, and have a limited impact on bird productivity and survival.
Post-release survival and productivity of oiled little blue penguins (Eudyptula minor) rehabilitated after the 2011 C/V Rena oil spill : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Conservation Biology at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
(Massey University, 2014) Sievwright, Karin Amy
There is ongoing global debate about the effectiveness and conservation value of rehabilitating oiled wildlife, with post-rehabilitation monitoring of released individuals being required to evaluate the medium- and long-term effectiveness of the rehabilitation process. This study provides the first assessment of the efficacy of the oil-rehabilitation process used in New Zealand by monitoring the post-release survival and productivity of little blue penguins (Eudyptula minor) that were oiled and subsequently rehabilitated following the 2011 C/V Rena oil spill in Tauranga, New Zealand. This study was enabled as all rehabilitated penguins were tagged with passive integrated transponders (PIT-tags/micro-chips) before release, as were similar numbers of non-oiled control penguins from within the local area around the same time. This enabled survival and productivity to be compared between rehabilitated and non-oiled penguins. Surveys for the presence of marked penguins were made in 18 of the 23 months following the release of rehabilitated penguins at three study sites (Mount Maunganui/Mauao, Leisure Island/Moturiki, and Rabbit Island/Motuotau). Mark-recapture analyses indicated that survival rates of rehabilitated penguins were comparable to those of control penguins. However, survival was reduced for both groups in the first six months following rehabilitation/micro-chipping. Survival probabilities increased thereafter and were high and reasonably constant over time. Probabilities estimated are likely to represent minima as by the end of the study an asymptote of first-time re-sightings of control and rehabilitated penguins was yet to be reached. Survival was not influenced by selected variables including oiling degree, admission and release body mass index, packed cell volume, total protein levels, blood glucose levels, and captive duration. This work also found that rehabilitated penguins were heavier than control penguins upon release and during the subsequent two months, however following the moult and post-moult foraging period masses reduced and thereafter were similar to those of control penguins. The behaviour of individual penguins was also recorded during surveys; rehabilitated penguins were more likely to stay (not move) when approached during surveys and were more docile than control penguins when handled. Breeding monitoring found that productivity of rehabilitated penguins was somewhat reduced in the year after the spill. The timing and duration of egg laying, clutch sizes and pre-fledging chick masses were similar between rehabilitated pairs (pairs including at least one rehabilitated penguin) and control pairs (pairs including two control penguins), whereas hatching, fledging and egg success were lower in rehabilitated pairs; however, only hatching success was significantly reduced. Despite these reductions, hatching, fledging and egg success rates of rehabilitated pairs were within ranges reported for other little blue penguin colonies in Australia and New Zealand. These findings suggest that the oil-rehabilitation process used during the C/V Rena oil spill was reasonably effective at treating and reversing most negative effects of oil-contamination on the post-release survival and productivity of rehabilitated penguins. This demonstrates the general effectiveness of the rehabilitation process used to treat oiled little blue penguins in New Zealand and justifies, with on-going improvement and adaption of treatments and techniques used, the continued practise of oiled wildlife rehabilitation in New Zealand.
Investigating the physiological impacts of capture and handling on threatened avian species by using surrogate species as models : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree Masters of Science in Conservation Biology at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
(Massey University, 2013) Burns, Thomas Stephen
The conservation management of many threatened species requires the capture and handling of wild individuals for monitoring, translocation or research purposes. However whenever wild animals are captured and handled there is the potential for these procedures to negatively impact the animal and result in altered behaviour or physiology, injury and even death. Therefore this thesis aimed to investigate what physiological impacts routine capture and handling may be having on threatened avian species in New Zealand by using surrogate species of birds as models for threatened birds. Layer hens (Gallus domesticus) were used as surrogates to model the physiological impacts of capture and handling on kiwi (Apteryx spp.). A treatment and control group of hens were serially blood sampled over 72 hours. Hens in the control group were placed in a box between blood samples and hens in the treatment group went through a simulation of a kiwi chase, capture and handling scenario. After 72 hours all birds were euthanized and their muscles examined histopathologically. Wild pukeko (Porphyrio porphyrio melanotus) captured using a net-gun at the Awapuni Sustainable Development Centre in Palmerston North were used as surrogates to model the physiological impacts of capture and handling on takahe (Porphyrio hochstetteri). Wild mallard ducks (Anas platyrhynchos) captured using a net-gun at Massey University’s Turitea campus were used as surrogates to model the physiological impacts of capture and handling on threatened waterfowl such as pateke/brown teal (Anas chlorotis), or whio/blue duck (Hymenolaimus malachorhynchos). All mallards and pukeko captured were serially blood sampled at capture (0 minutes), 30 and 120 minutes. Within each species there was a control group that was held in a box between samples and a treatment group which was handled according best practice protocol for takahe (for pukeko) or pateke (for mallards). A further group of pukeko was also shot using a rifle as comparison. To assess the physiological impact of capture, biochemical analytes measured included plasma concentrations of the enzymes creatine kinase (CK), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), glutamate dehydrogenase (GLDH) and the stress hormone corticosterone (CORT). In mallards and pukeko capture using the net-gun the plasma concentrations of uric acid (UA) were also measured. Capture was found to elicit a stress response in all three of the species studied as shown by elevated plasma CORT; however there were differences between species on the effect of capture on plasma CK, AST, GLDH and UA. The handling protocol was found to have minimal impact on the physiological response of any of the species and the impact of capture either overrode the effects of handling or handling protocol was simply not a significant factor on any of the biochemical analytes measured. Layer hens were found to have altered physiology at the commencement of the study, probably due to the high metabolic demands of egg production. There was also significant variation in their ‘normal’ physiology and physiological response between the two weeks they were studied. Layer hens are therefore considered to be inappropriate surrogates for kiwi or any wild bird. Baseline levels of the biochemical analytes of pukeko that were captured using a net-gun and those that were shot were similar. The time of day the pukeko were captured caused significant variation in the concentration of plasma GLDH and UA. Capture did cause significant elevations in plasma CK and AST showing subclinical muscle damage was occurring in the pukeko and this damage and the stress response was greater when the pukeko were captured in flight. Capture also had a significant if less clearly defined impact on renal and gastro-intestinal physiology. Seasonal variation and some time of day variation were observed in the concentration of CK in mallard ducks. While capture caused a significant stress response in captured mallards it did not have a significant effect on CK, GLDH or UA. Plasma AST concentrations decreased significantly following capture albeit by a very small amount. The difference found between species in their physiological response to similar procedures highlights that surrogate species may not be appropriate and validation between the surrogate and threatened species is required. Small differences in the capture technique may have a significant impact on the animal’s physiological response. In conclusion the handling protocol has a minimal physiological impact on these birds following capture and further research should focus on capture techniques and protocols. If surrogate species are used for further research then there should be some attempt to validate that the physiological response observed is similar in the threatened species.
Resource partitioning between two competitive species, the hihi (Notiomystis cincta) and bellbird (Anthornis melanura), during the non-breeding season on Tiritiri Matangi Island : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Conservation Biology at Massey University, Albany, New Zealand
(Massey University, 2012) Roper, Michelle
Understanding the level of competition and resource partitioning between New Zealand’s ecological honeyeaters is important for hihi (Notiomystis cincta) conservation management. Hihi management on Tiritiri Matangi Island has been thought to be hindered by competition with bellbirds (Anthornis melanura), particularly at the supplementary sugar water feeders. With some inconsistent results in differences between their foraging ecology at different locations and seasons, I collected data on the foraging ecology of both hihi and bellbirds on Tiritiri Matangi Island to compare with previous studies at other locations. Nectar was the main constituent of both species diet with fruit only being consumed in the autumn-winter months for both species. The main difference between the species was that hihi consumed more fruit than bellbirds and bellbirds consumed honeydew. Bellbirds foraged more in the higher vegetation layers and on higher nectar value flowers than hihi which corresponded with previous studies. This suggested that resource partitioning is likely to be in the form of bellbirds defending the best resources of higher nectar value in the higher vegetation layers with interference competition and hihi obtain resources with exploitation competition by utilising flowers which are often smaller, less abundant or produce less nectar in the lower vegetation layers. Male bellbirds and hihi were the most frequent visitors to the supplementary feeders. With few interspecific interactions it suggests that male bellbirds are unable to defend the feeders due to the feeders being overwhelmed with hihi and also showing how dependent hihi are on supplementary feeding. Female bellbirds were the least frequent visitors suggesting that intraspecific competition is greater at the feeders but only for bellbirds as there was little evidence of high competition between the hihi sexes. There may be some resource partitioning between habitat types as hihi were consistently found at higher densities in the mature forest habitat likely due to their dependence on the feeders and artificial nest boxes, whereas bellbird densities changed with resource availability and breeding season territoriality. The densities of both species were affected by the presence of feeders and nectar availability with positive correlation between the species in the non-breeding season, suggesting that hihi habitat preference was not affected by competitive exclusion from bellbirds. The removal of 100 bellbirds for a translocation had no evident impact on hihi and bellbird densities at capture sites.
Fine scale spatial behaviour of indigenous riverine fish in a small New Zealand stream : a thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Conservation Biology at Massey University, Palmerston North
(Massey University, 2009) McEwan, Amber Julie
The substrate and flow characteristics of a 100m reach of a small, North Island, New Zealand stream were mapped and drawn to a 0.25m2 grid scale. One hundred and thirty four individual fish, representing five native and one introduced species were PIT tagged and then monitored with a portable transceiver over 41 occasions during day and night in autumn to winter of 2008, then on 3 occasions in January 2009. Redfin bullies (Gobiomorphus huttoni), shortjaw kokopu (Galaxias postvectis) and koaro (Galaxias brevipinnis) were most commonly represented and redetected in the 100m reach (75%, 73%, and 83% detection rates respectively). Redfin bullies with a lower condition factor than conspecifics were less likely to be redetected and gravid fish were considered more at risk of infection or death associated with PIT tagging. Shortjaw kokopu were less likely to be redetected but more likely to retain tags in the longer term than both redfin bullies and koaro. No difference was found in tag detection rates at a range of flow levels, nor between day and night surveying, although a small decline in detection rates occurred as water temperature decreased. Four hundred and twelve locations of untagged fish were collected during 14 night samples and added to the dataset of 557 locations of PIT tagged fish. A total of 1112 (82% of the reach) 0.25m2 grid squares were inventoried for microhabitat characteristics using 16 physical variables which, together with fish locations, enabled the microhabitat characteristics of the grid squares where fish were found to be compared with those where fish were not found. Redfin bullies and shortjaw kokopu showed strong associations with large substrates and large interstitial refuge spaces and both species showed marked diel differences in microhabitat utilisation. Koaro were more dependent on velocity and surface turbulence and used similar microhabitat types regardless of diel period. No size-based or seasonal differences were found regarding microhabitat use. Potential segregation was observed between shortjaw kokopu and koaro but no other biotic influences on habitat utilisation were apparent. Three floods occurred during the 2008 sampling period which facilitated the collection of fish behavioural data in relation to high flows. A total of 31 individuals were detected during flood conditions and these were found either within 0.5 metres of the base flow stream bed edge or inside the base flow stream bed in areas with large boulder substrates. A subset of the population was found returning to the same locations during multiple floods. Individual fish detected during high flows were significantly less familiar (see pages 68-69 for a detailed description of the term “familiar” in this context) in comparison to the subset of individuals that were commonly resident in the study reach during base flow conditions, showing that tagged fish made larger scale movements during flood conditions. While small changes in community composition occurred that were able to be attributed to flood-induced microhabitat changes, overall a remarkable level of persistence was observed in the tagged community, with over half of all individuals remaining in or returning to the same 100m section of stream following each flood.
Kereru (Hemiphaga novaeseelandiae) : impact injuries, morphometrics, moult and plumage : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Conservation Biology at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
(Massey University, 2010) Cousins, Rachael Anne
The New Zealand Woodpigeon or Kereru (Hemiphaga novaeseelandiae) is a monomorphic pigeon that is often seen in urban and rural areas, feeding on native or introduced plants throughout the year. The Department of Conservation (DoC) offices around New Zealand, in particular the lower North Island, receive many Kereru each year due to predation and fatalities caused by impacts with windows and vehicles. Little scientific work has been conducted on such a valuable resource to date, so in this study I accessed and used 50 of these Kereru, as well as 76 reports from the Massey Wildlife Clinic (the wildlife surgery and rehabilitation wing of the Institute of Animal, Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences (IVABS)), 20 specimens from Massey‟s necropsy database and 119 moult records from other workers, to study four aspects of impact injuries and Kereru biology as outlined below. (1) The type and extent of injuries that were sustained through collision events and how this affected rehabilitation. We used radiographs and necropsies to determine the skeletal and soft tissue injuries in 70 Kereru that died in such collisions, and radiographs of 61 birds that were assessed or treated having survived initial impacts. Vehicle collisions tended to result in damage to the extremities (wing and femur), whereas collisions with windows resulted in trauma to the head, fractures/dislocations of the coracoids and clavicles, and ruptured internal organs. Fractured coracoids frequently damaged flight muscles and ruptured the heart. Extensive bruising of pectoral muscles and haemorrhaging of the lungs was due to the force of impact. Rehabilitation time was not related to the number of skeletal injuries sustained, nor was the time until death for those that did not survive. Flight speed and force calculations suggest that a 570g Kereru would collide with 3-70 times the force that smaller birds (5-180g) would; this may explain the discrepancies between the injuries characterised here and those reported for North American passerines. The differences in injuries sustained from collisions with windows and cars can be used to inform rehabilitators about the possible nature of injuries if the source of impact is known. (2) Morphometry, gastrointestinal organ masses and crop contents. Of 50 Kereru that died due to impact collisions, little physical variation was found between sexes; males had longer head/bill lengths. Overall, different structural measures were positively related (mass and tarsus, wing and tail, mass and head-bill and head-bill and tarsus) but variation was generally high between individuals. Fat scores of Kereru were closely related to environmental seasonal variation and 80% of birds were in good body condition. Kereru lack caeca and there were no sexual differences in reference to dry organ mass (liver, intestine, gizzard and crop). Organ masses reflected body mass and size to varying degrees: liver mass was best explained by body mass, gizzard mass by tarsus length as much as body mass, and intestine mass only by body mass. Kereru intestines were proportionately shorter than those of herbivorous grouse, despite grouse having long caeca to help with digestion of plant matter. Kereru seem to rely on long retention times instead, and up to 68g of plant matter were found in the crop, gizzard and intestines. There were no sexual differences in mass of consumed materials found within the gastrointestinal tract, consisting of introduced and native material (foliage/flowers/buds/fruits). Digesta accounted for 0.12 – 13.4% of total Kereru body mass. (3) Kereru flight feather moult, wing area and wing loading. One hundred and sixty nine Kereru moult records showed that Kereru moult over a nine month period (July – March/April), with a restricted moult of tail feathers during the breeding season. Kereru moult is symmetrical in relation to the number of primary feathers moulted, but not in respect to the position on the wing. Kereru often have multiple moult loci and do not follow a conventional moult sequence. This moult strategy reduces the effect that feather gaps have on wing area and thus wing loading. The moult strategy of Kereru is a solution that works to minimise the change in wing area, but at the cost of having a prolonged moult. (4) Plumage colouration assessed using reflectance measurements from light spectrometry. This study is the first to assess UV signals in Kereru and UV signals were found in all eight regions investigated, five plumage (Breast, Crown, Mantle, Wing and Rump) and three bare parts (Bill base, Bill tip and Foot). The greatest intensity of maximum UV signal (uvmax) was in the bare parts with a covariance of the bill tip and foot. No sexual differences or condition dependent signals were found, but age-related UV signals were found in the crown and foot. In the visual spectrum, females had a greater intensity of maximum colour signal (rmax) in the wing. Age-related colouration was seen predominately in the bare parts, in particular the foot which has a higher intensity of colour in juveniles. Even with single-angle light spectrometry Kereru are a highly cryptic species.
Effects of translocation on kokako (Callaeas cinerea wilsoni) song and its application to management : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Conservation Biology at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
(Massey University, 2009) Van Herpt, Sarah Michelle
This thesis fills a research gap in our knowledge of kokako song by looking at how song evolves in multi-dialect areas. Kokako only exist in small remnant populations separated by large tracts of unsuitable land. Kokako are very poor flyers, only able to fly for approximately 100 metres at a time. In order to prevent inbreeding and a loss of genetic diversity in the remaining kokako populations, managers are carrying out translocations to establish new populations, maintain gene flow and prevent inbreeding. However, these translocations have the potential to be unsuccessful because kokako exhibit macrogeographic variation in their dialects, and tend not to breed with individuals who do not share the same dialect as them. If the purpose of the translocation is to enhance genetic diversity by having kokako from different areas breed then song is an important factor that must be dealt with. Song is extremely important to kokako for a number of reasons. Chiefly, it is hypothesised that song is their primary means of territory defence. A kokako gains all its resources from its territory, so it is imperative that they successfully defend it. Their duet song functions in territory defence, but also acts to form and maintain pair bonds. In order to try and address the problem that song causes in translocations I studied if and how song evolves in a multiple dialect area. I conducted research at Pukaha Mount Bruce, where there is a population of kokako originating from two different source populations, and thus two different dialects, Northern Mapara and Mangatutu. I looked at the Northern Mapara dialect, and recorded kokako belonging to three groups; kokako currently living in the source population, kokako that were translocated to Pukaha and kokako that were born at Pukaha. In order to determine how the song may be changing I looked at element repertoires, the levels of sharing between groups, the number of unique elements in repertoires and the syntactical and temporal characteristics of phrases. This study shows that translocation into multiple dialect areas can affect kokako song. Translocation did not affect the size of the kokako repertoire, but it seemed to affect the amount of sharing within and between different groups of kokako. Currently the level of sharing within the groups at Pukaha is lower than the level of sharing within the source Mapara population, indicating that the song may be diverging. There also seem to be more unique elements found at Pukaha, which in part explains the lack of sharing. There appears to be microgeographic variation at Pukaha, with birds clustered around the second (Mangatutu) dialect sharing less with the source population than do those kokako whose territories are lower down in the reserve. The phrases which are used are also evolving, with only one phrase truly shared among all groups. There are other phrases which show additions or deletions of elements, and so are evolving. The main change found in the phrases is the timing between elements, with six out of seven phrases examined showing changes. These results have repercussions for future kokako translocations, and the future of the Pukaha kokako. A low amount of phrase and element type sharing combined with changes of intra-phrase timing could lead to the Pukaha kokako’s inability to successfully defend their territories. This research shows how kokako song can give conservation managers information on the status of their populations in regards to interbreeding and raises questions which can be answered by further research, both at Pukaha and in other mixeddialect kokako populations.
Spatial ecology, habitat use, and the impacts of rats on chevron skinks (Oligosoma homalonotum) on Great Barrier Island : a thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Conservation Biology, Massey University, Auckland, New Zealand
(Massey University, 2009) Barr, Benjamin Philip
The chevron skink (Oligosoma homalonotum) is one of the largest, yet least observed skink species in New Zealand. The species was thought to have once been widespread in Northern New Zealand, however currently it is only found on Great Barrier and Little Barrier Islands. Great Barrier Island is the apparent stronghold for the species although it appears to be in decline there, despite a net increase in habitat. Recent studies have increased the understanding of the general ecology of the species, however little is known about the threats to the survival of this species. This study had two main objectives; the first was to establish if rats are a threat to chevron skinks, and the second was to increase current knowledge of the species ecology. The research was undertaken in an area of extensive rodent control (Glenfern Sanctuary) and an adjacent unmanaged reserve in Port Fitzroy, on Great Barrier Island in 2008. The first objective of this study involved confirming that rat densities in the treatment (Glenfern Sanctuary) were sufficiently different to allow meaningful comparisons of chevron skink population characteristics between sites. This was achieved by determining absolute rat densities using Zippin’s removal method at four sites, and correlating these with a relative abundance measure (tracking rates) to give confidence in the observed trends. Rat densities were high (1.94 - 3.00 rats ha-1) in the control, and low (0.00 and 0.06 rats ha-1) in the treatment sites, and these correlated well with tracking rates. In light of these clear differences between the treatment and control, the population structure and condition of chevron skinks were compared between sites. The population structure showed erosion of juvenile and sub-adult size categories, which indicated differences in vulnerabilities between size categories. Physical evidence of failed rat predation was also observed in adult skinks in the unmanaged control, which confirmed that rats were interacting with chevron skinks. Although the adults survived the attacks they suffered injuries including eye damage, punctures, cuts and tail loss. Smaller skinks would be unlikely to survive such attacks due to the severity and scale of the injuries, supporting the assertions of the population structure that smaller skinks may be more vulnerable than adults. The extent of tail loss was converted to a condition index to determine if failed rat predation was more widespread in the population, than was observed by conspicuous injuries. This condition index (body-tail condition index) was stable through all size categories in the treatment, but significantly reduced in adults in the unmanaged sites. That there was no reduction in the condition of smaller skinks in the unmanaged control sites despite high rat densities suggests that interactions between rats and smaller skinks are fatal, and thus not represented in the data. Nine chevron skinks were radio-tracked to determine habitat use, home range and ranging behaviour. Habitat use of chevron skinks was similar to a previous study and demonstrated that trees, crevices and logs were important refuge sites. Chevron skinks were more likely to be found at sites with trees, crevices and debris dams. Chevron skink home ranges indicated that adults moved further away from streams than previously anticipated at this time of year, and skinks demonstrated site fidelity. There was also overlap in home ranges between individuals, and skinks with overlapping home ranges shared common refuges. During flooding events, chevron skinks exhibited an arboreal response that appears to be a behaviour specific to stream associated animals, which allows them to avoid being taken by floodwaters.

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