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Item Studies on heat-induced protein interaction and digestion behavior of sheep milk : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Food Technology at Riddet Institute, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand(Massey University, 2023) Pan, ZhengSheep milk has low heat stability, which results in undesirable changes after heat treatment, such as separation of milk fat, sediment formation, and phase separation. However, the mechanism of low heat stability of sheep milk has not yet been elucidated. Additionally, the protein interactions in sheep milk during heating and the digestion behaviors of differently processed sheep milk are also unknown. Therefore, the aim of this thesis was to explore the protein interactions of sheep milk during heat treatment (67.5–90 °C and 140 °C), and the mechanism of heat coagulation of sheep milk. In addition, the effect of the commercial processing treatment [homogenization (200/50 bar) and thermal (75 °C/15 s and 95 °C/5 min) processing] on the digestion behavior of sheep milk were determined. Sheep skim milk (SSM) was heated under various conditions (including temperatures, heating times and pH values) and the denaturation of whey protein and protein interactions occurring during heating were characterized using high-performance liquid chromatography. Casein micelle diameter increased upon heating, depending on the temperature and time. The association of whey protein with casein micelles and the aggregation of casein micelles occurred simultaneously and contributed to the increase in casein micelle size in SSM. SSM was stable to heat (140 °C) at pH 6.8–6.9 but became unstable at higher or lower pH. The low heat stability of sheep milk was attributed to the low proportion of κ-casein surrounding the casein micelles, high ionic calcium levels and ready dissociation of κ-casein from casein micelles upon heating at pH 7.0. The Human Gastric Simulator was used for in vitro dynamic gastric digestion and pH-stat for simulated small intestinal digestion. Heat treatment of sheep milk resulted in the incorporation of MFGs into the curds through casein‒whey protein or whey protein‒whey protein interactions; this hindered the formation of the closely knitted protein network and led to the formation of fragmented curds. Homogenization of sheep milk resulted in looser and more fragmented curd in comparison with unhomogenized sheep milk; this accelerated the protein hydrolysis and increased the rate of release of protein, fat, and calcium from the curds into the digesta. Processing treatments affected the lipolysis rate but not the lipolysis degree during small intestinal digestion. In conclusion, the findings of this study have advanced our understanding of the heat-induced protein interactions in sheep milk and provided insights into the digestion behavior of differently processed sheep milk within the gastrointestinal tract. This may help to design and develop sheep milk-based products with desired digestive and functional properties.Item Assessment of process variables on the structural, material, and physical properties of acid milk gels : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Food Technology at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand. EMBARGOED until 9 June 2026.(Massey University, 2023) Kim, Ji UkThe aim of this study was to investigate the effect of process and formulation variables on cream cheese microstructure, properties, and their interactions. A systematic approach toward assessing these effects was conducted with a model cream cheese that was developed as part of the study design. Preliminary analysis compared the structural and material properties of commercial cream cheeses against the model composition to determine the extent of formulation variations on the performance of the cream cheese. In terms of compositional variables, both the ratios of fat to moisture and protein to moisture were found to positively correlate with large deformation material properties cream cheeses. These ratios were accordingly fixed in the model cream cheese formulation used within the study. The impact of coagulation kinetics on the structural and material properties of the model cream cheese was then investigated. Milk coagulation was conducted using either glucono delta-lactone (GDL) or lactic acid starter. Acid milk gels formed using GDL showed faster pH decrease during the early stage of acidification, causing earlier gelation at higher gelation pH when compared to gels using culture as acidulant. Amongst other observations, it was seen that the application of GDL as acidulant produced greater acid gel firmness (i.e., storage modulus (G′)) and higher rigidity in the corresponding cream cheeses when compared to acid gels and cream cheeses prepared using starter cultures as the acidulant. The role of additional processing and formulation variables (homogenisation pressure, coagulation pH, coagulation temperature, and stabiliser level) on cream cheese physical, material, and microstructural properties was also determined. Protein-protein and protein-fat interactions were hypothesised as the primary structural contributors to the physical properties of cream cheese, and thus variables that impacted on these interactions were considered as most actively influencing cream cheese properties. Findings were able to show that cream cheese microstructure and its associated properties demonstrated well-defined correlations to specific and controllable processing elements within the manufacturing process, showing significance in interactions between parameters in multivariable linear regression analysis (P < 0.05). Finally, the role of mineral balance of the properties of creams cheese was investigated. Here, different concentrations of the calcium chelating agent, ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA), were added to the milk prior to coagulation. Progressive addition of EDTA was seen to reduce levels of insoluble calcium, which in turn led to weakened structural and material properties of both acid milk gels and corresponding cream cheeses. Findings here indicated the particular contribution of ionic content and equilibrium on cream cheese properties during manufacture.Item Mathematical modelling of salt diffusion in dry-salted cheese : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Food Engineering at Massey University, Manawatu, New Zealand(Massey University, 2019) Keck, Meghan EmilyControl of salt uptake into cheese curds is vital to the production of safe, functional, and consistent cheese products. Development of mathematical models describing the mechanisms affecting salt uptake, namely the Fickian diffusion of salt into curds and osmotic pressure differential induced whey expulsion, are necessary to control curd properties, optimize salt uptake, and reduce final product inconsistency in commercial cheesemaking plants. Novel image analysis techniques were developed to assess whey expulsion behaviour in individual model renneted skim milk gels under different brining conditions. Whey expulsion results were combined with salt uptake data to develop mechanistically-derived mathematical models of the simultaneous whey expulsion and salt uptake under brining conditions. Whey expulsion data was combined with gel meso-structural properties to estimate the pressure gradients driving the whey expulsion behaviour. Finally, the simultaneous salt uptake and whey expulsion models were used to model salt and whey transport in model renneted gels treated under different dry salting conditions and compared to samples collected from an industrial cheesemaking plant. This work developed new techniques to evaluate whey expulsion in individual curds, demonstrated the importance of accounting for whey expulsion in the evaluation of salt uptake and modelling, and applied mathematical models describing simultaneous salt uptake and whey expulsion to milk gels exposed to brining and dry salting conditions.
