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    An assessment of intraruminal chromium controlled release capsules for measuring feed intake in dairy cows : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Agricultural Science in Animal Science at Massey University
    (Massey University, 1990) Nasution, Satria Nusantara
    Indonesia is a tropical country that has an east-west length of 5000 km from 92 to 141 east longitude and a width of 1500 km from 6 to 11 south latitude (Indonesia Official Year Bood 1989). Approximately 60% of total employment is related to the agricultural sector and 70% of non-oil exoirts are attributable to agriculture (The Fourth Five Year Development Plan 1984). The livestock industry is closely integrated with crop production, particularly in Java and Bali. In other areas, livestock plays a significant role in family life as draft power, particularly in the transmigration areas. In East Indonesia (East Nusatenggara and South Sulawesi) conventional grazing systems are of greater importance. The 1987 Indonesian livestock population comprised approximately 7 million draft cattle, 0.3 million dairy cattle, 10 million goats, 5 million sheep, 2 million bullaloes and 211 million poultry. As the fifthe largest populated country in the world in 1990 (180) million Indonesian people consumed 2.24, 4.18, 5.34 kg of egg, milk and meat per capita per annum. This is projected to increase by 1993 to 2.52, 4.54 and 6.79 kg/person of egg, milk and meat respectively, but this will still remain the lowest consumption of animal protein among South East Asia countries. To meet the projected increase in consumption of animal products the population and production of Indonesian livestock will need to be increased to meet the needs of a population which is growing at the rate of 2.60% per annum. (The Fourth Five Year Development Plan 1984). Initial studies with CRC indicate that they could have considerable potential for improving current knowledge of feed intake at pasture. CRC increase labour efficiency for measuring feed intake compared to twice-daily administration of Cr(2)0(3) in the form of either gelatin capsules or impregnated paper. They would be particularly suited to the extensive grazing situation such as in Indonesia where it is not practical to handle cattle each day to administer faecal markers. The purpose of this investigation was therefore to validate cattle CRC for indirectly estimating faecal output and hence feed intake in dairy cows fed indoors. A secondary objective was to compare pasture intake outdoors estimated indirectly from Cr dilution in the faecal sample and by the pasture cuts technique.
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    The effects of lasalocid on milk production in pastured spring-calving dairy cows : a thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Agricultural Science at Massey University
    (Massey University, 1995) Gozho, Nhamo George
    lonophore supplements are widely used in the ration of fattening beef cattle, especially in the United States. Studies have indicated benefits in terms of a faster growth rate and live weight gain and a reduction in feed intake in beef cattle fed either monensin or lasalocid. In recent years interest has been growing on the possible use of ionophores in dairy cattle. This is because changes in rumen metabolism associated with ionophores could increase milk production in lactating ruminants and/or reduce health and reproductive problems. Two experiments were conducted with dairy cows at grazing to evaluate the effects of Bovatec 20 (lasalocid) on milk production and performance in early and mid-lactation. In Experiment 1 thirty multiparous Friesian cows aged between three and nine years were assigned to two similar treatment groups of 15 cows balanced for age, previous lactation production, body weight and body condition prior to calving. Treatments consisted of no lasalocid (control) and 400 mg lasalocid per cow per day (drenched twice daily) and the experiment commenced 7 days postpartum. Milk yield and composition were measured at weekly intervals and the treatment continued for ten weeks. Gross energy content of milk was estimated from milk composition. Blood was sampled by tail venipuncture at weekly intervals during morning milking and serum harvested. Serum was analyzed for concentrations of non-esterified fatty acids, B-hydroxybutyrate, glucose, magnesium and calcium. Reproductive parameters (calving to first oestrus, calving to conception intervals and the number of services per conception) were calculated from farm records collected during the experiment. No differences in milk, milk fat, protein, or lactose yields were observed. Significant (P<0.01) lasalocid by period interaction was observed for milk fat yield. Gross energy content in milk did not differ between groups but period effects were significant (P
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    Production characteristics and responses to feeding by Friesian cows fat and thin at calving of high and low genetic merit : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Agricultural Science at Massey University
    (Massey University, 1984) Ngarmsak, Supachai
    A review of literature is given on herbage intake achieved by grazing lactating dairy cows. The lactating cows have higher herbage intake than non-lactating cows. Condition at calving may have an effect on herbage intake by dairy cows. The theory of response, the response to feeding both before and after calving are also reviewed. The literature is reviewed which discusses responses to feeding in Europe (where diet of the cows are mainly concentrates) and in Australia and New Zealand where dairy cows graze mainly on pasture. The evidences of improving cows quality by selection are given with special emphasis on New Zealand dairy cows. Genetic merit of a New Zealand cow for milkfat production is measured by her breeding index (BI). The main objective of the work was to study production characteristics and response to feeding in early lactation by Friesian cows, fat and thin at calving, of high and low genetic merit. Over lactation High BI cows produced more than Low BI cows. The differences between BI groups in milkfat production was in close agreement with the expected differences based on BI's. High BI cows had slightly higher herbage intake than Low BI cows but no signifcant differences were found. Low BI cows were fatter than High BI cows. No significant difference in fatty acid composition of milk between the BI groups was found. Over lactation Fat cows produced more milkfat than Thin cows. Improving 1 condition score at calving was associated with an increase of 10.5 kg milkfat. No significant differences in response to feeding in early lactation between High BI and Low BI cows nor between Fat and Thin cows were found. The response to moderate underfeeding during early lactation was mainly immediate response. The residual effects of underfeeding were small and confined to 2 weeks after returning to full feeding. Underfeeding significantly increased mole % of long chain fatty acids of milk and significantly decreased mole % of short chain fatty acids.
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    The effect of herbage availability and species choice on grazing preference of dairy cattle : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Masterate in Applied Science at Massey University
    (Massey University, 1997) Torres-Rodríguez, Alberto
    Herbage intake is one of the factors determining animal performance. Intake and quality of the diet consumed by animals are both determined by selective grazing. The motivation to graze selectively is in part a function of dietary preferences. The study of diet selection requires knowledge of what animals prefer to eat when there are no or minimal constraints to them obtaining their diet. This experiment aimed to investigate the effect of relative availability of a preferred species on dairy cattle response at grazing, and to evaluate the feasibility of the use of monocultures of pasture species for studies of preferences of dairy cattle. Three species-contrasts each composed of two adjacent 1-ha monocultures of either White clover:Ryegrass (W_Rye), Lotus corniculatus:Ryegrass (L_Rye) or Lotus corniculatus:Red clover (L_Red) were used. White clover (W) and lotus (L) had been previously determined as preferred over ryegrass (Rye) and red clover (Red). Each species-contrast was subdivided into four plots and the height of the preferred species was set at 4, 6, 8 and 10 cm, whereas that of the less preferred species was set at 10 cm across plots. Groups of yearling Holstein heifers grazed the plots, and observations on grazing behaviour were made by recording grazing activity and species location at 10-minute intervals during daylight hours for three consecutive days, twice in summer and twice in autumn during 95/96 at the AgResearch Flock House Research Centre, near Bulls. During summer, a second week of grazing followed each period of observations for grazing activity, where attempts to estimate herbage dry matter intake and diet composition using the alkane technique were made. From the species-location information, total grazing time (GTt), expressed in hours, and distribution of GTt between preferred (GTp) and less preferred (GTI) species was obtained. The proportion of GTt allocated to grazing the preferred species was considered as a measure of preference. Statistical analysis was performed by GLM procedures of SAS. Regression analyses were carried out for grazing activity parameters on actual height of the preferred species. Animals showed preference for a mixed diet with partial preference for the legume component (W, 67 %, and L, 70 %) over grass, whereas partial preference in the L_Red species-contrast was close to indifference (L, 55 %). However, this partial preference differed between seasons, being in general stronger in summer than in autumn. Partial preference decreased with decreases in height of the preferred species. However, herbage bulk density (BD) appeared to be important also in influencing preference since more marked responses to height were observed in autumn when sward had lower BD compared with summer. Botanical composition of the sward upper stratum was also considered to influence animal preferences. Diet composition estimation from herbage and faecal alkanes suggested that animals consumed the preferred species at higher proportions than indicated by the proportion of GTt allocated to the preferred species. This was possibly due to differences in rate of intake between herbage species. However, more research is needed in this area in order to establish more accurately the relationship between these two techniques. It is concluded that animals respond to changes in herbage availability of a preferred species and to species choice by adjusting grazing time between preferred and less preferred species. It would be appropriate to research the potential animal performance benefits of increasing the availability of a preferred species in proportion to that preferred by the animals. This works confirms the use of monocultures of pasture species to be useful in the evaluation of preference of dairy cattle. Inclusion of a wider arrangement of species-contrasts is recommended.
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    Use of genetic information about the herd in the design and management of dairy farm systems : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science majoring in Animal Science at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2003) Bryant, Jeremy Ralph
    The aim of this thesis was to find ways of using the genetic information available about the cows to assist in improving the management of the herd and replacements. In particular models were developed which used Estimated Breeding Values to determine the feed demand of the cow and target liveweights for replacement heifers. The relationships between estimated breeding values (EBV) and cow performance at a range of feeding levels, and the effect of genetic merit on the partitioning of feed to milk or liveweight gain throughout the lactation, were also investigated. At low levels of feeding, the absolute differences in milk yield between cows corresponded to the absolute differences in breeding values between cows. However, at high levels of feeding the difference in milk yields between genetic groups are greater than the difference in breeding values. This constitutes a form of genotype x environment interaction, which has important practical and economic implications for daily farms, and for the expected value of genetic improvements. High genetic merit (HGM) cows partitioned a significantly higher proportion of metabolisable energy intake into milk than low genetic merit (LGM) cows in early (0.68 vs 0.62), peak (0.59 vs 0.57), mid (0.58 vs 0.56) and late lactation (0.53 vs 0.51) (HGM vs LGM respectively). In early lactation, HGM cows utilised more body reserves for milk production (-0.06 vs -0.004, for HGM and LGM, respectively). In addition, HGM and LGM cows appeared to compensate for low intakes in early lactation by reducing the level of MEI partitioned to milk, which probably prevented excessive weight losses. These results with grazing cows confirm published data with cows fed on other rations. Results from a grazing experiment, with 5 separate farmlets at 5 different stocking rates, were used to provide genetic information and performance per cow of a "calibration" herd corresponding to maximum profitability per farm (max EFS). The genetic and performance information for the calibration herd was then used to predict the performance of other cows or herds based on the difference in EBV for liveweight and milksolids. From these predicted values for liveweight and milksolids the "Genetic Feed Demand" (GFD) of the herd was calculated at max EFS. The GFD can then be used to adapt and improve the Comparative Stocking Rate (CSR) equation by replacing kg liveweight/ha with total GFD. Optimum values for the new CSR of 0.7 to 0.8 are proposed. This simple adjustment using genetic values provides a better estimate of the feed demand of the herd. From this an appropriate number of cows for the specified feed supply can be determined Another model was developed to use the liveweight EBV to formulate a set of liveweight targets for individual heifers of any breeds at different ages throughout the first two years of their life. Feeding regimes for the heifers were also proposed. A heifer herd management report was outlined that could be used by farmers and graziers to focus special attention on those individual heifers which were significantly lighter or heavier than their target weights for age. In conclusion, greater use should be made of genetic information of individual cows and herds when designing and managing dairy farm systems. Genetic values can be used in a number of ways to ensure cows or heifers are fed more appropriately so they achieve levels of performance, which are closer to their pre-determined genetic potential. Genetic information should also be included in tools that are used to model the management of dairy farm systems, as this will improve the accuracy of prediction.
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    Effects of stocking rate and supplementation on the productivity and profitability of Argentine dairy systems : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Applied Science in Animal Production at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2006) Baudracco, Javier
    Dairy production in Argentina is based on grazed pastures, with the inclusion of supplements as a secondary source of feed. The average milk production per hectare in Argentine dairy farms is low and this affects the profitability of the farms. The low efficiency of production per hectare appears to be associated with low stocking rate and low utilisation of the cheapest source of feed, which is grazed pasture. Data reviewed in the present study suggested that stocking rate (SR) and the amount of imported feed are factors with significant influence on dairy farm productivity and profitability in Argentina, as is also the case in New Zealand and Australia. Stocking rate, expressed as the number of cows per hectare, is a simplification of the relationship between feed demand and feed supply. This relationship can be better expressed as kilograms of live weight per tonne of dry matter total feed supply, defined as comparative stocking rate. The aim of this thesis was to quantify the effects of comparative SR and supplementation (imported feed) on the productivity and profitability of Argentine dairy farms. A simulation model was developed to predict pasture dry matter (DM) intake and the harvesting efficiency of grazing dairy cows in Argentina (Chapter 3). In validation tests, using data from cows grazing lucerne in Argentina and ryegrass-clover in Ireland, the model predicted satisfactorily. Following this, a simulation model was developed to predict milksolids (MS) production and live weight (Lwt) change of Argentine Holstein cows in grazing dairy systems, given a determined intake of metabolisable energy (Chapter 4). Finally, a whole-farm simulation model called the Argentine Dairy System Model (ADSM) was developed (Chapter 5). by integrating the models developed in Chapter 3 and 4, together with a pre-existent economic model for Argentine dairy farms. Model validation was conducted by comparing results from the model against data form eight Argentine dairy farms. The accuracy of model predictions was satisfactory. Twenty-two dairy systems were tested with ADSM, in order to allow the effects of comparative SR and supplementation to be explored. The cow type used was the Argentine Holstein (550 kg Lwt and 6.8% MS content). The present study suggests that the low MS production of Argentine dairy farms could be increased by increasing both comparative SR and the amount of supplements imported into the farm. Model predictions indicated that MS production per hectare would be maximised at a comparative SR of approximately 100 kg Lwt/t DM, economic farm surplus ($US/ha) at 90 kg Lwt/t DM, and return on assets at 80 kg Lwt/t DM. Additionally, the model predicted that cows stocked at a comparative SR of about 80 kg Lwt/t DM will neither increase nor decrease Lwt change over a complete season (lactating and dry periods). These results suggest that the optimum comparative SR, in terms of both economic and sustainable physical performance for the Argentine Holstein cows seems to be around 80 kg Lwt/t DM. Annual pasture utilization values were 70%, 76%, and 81% for comparative SRs of 80, 90, and 100 kg Lwt /t DM, respectively. At the milk payout and concentrates price used in this study, it would be profitable to increase the amount of imported feed up to 3.6 t DM per hectare, provided that SR is simultaneously increased, in order to achieve pasture utilisation of 70% or higher. A dairy system with 8.6 t DM/ha/year produced on-farm, importing 3.6 t DM concentrates per year and stocked at 81 kg Lwt/t DM (1.8 cows/ha) would be able to utilise 71% of pasture and produce 626 kg MS/ha/year, which is about two-fold the average MS production of Argentine farms. Changing either the price of milk or the cost of concentrates by 10% did not alter the relative profitability of the different systems.
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    Systems modelling in animal production research : an interactive case study : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at Massey University
    (Massey University, 1982) Miller, Campbell Petrie
    Synthesis of improved systems of year round dairy herd feeding requires whole systems to be assembled and evaluated. In the field, only a limited number of possibilities can be examined and it is likely that there will be interaction between systems and the unique environments in which they are necessarily set. Modelling was undertaken to enlarge the possible number of syntheses and to provide a constant environment in which they could be compared. A number of forage sources and a variety of milk production patterns were combined in a linear programming model which maximized economic or physical returns from combinations of forage supply and demand, within constraints of pasture and crop management, cow intake and forage quality. The linear programming model was validated, firstly by exposing details of structure and output to an expert panel and secondly, by comparing model structure and output with those of several real farms. Experiments were carried out in which cropping level, stocking rate, conservation level, cow production level and forage yield and quality were varied. Selected systems were subjected to simulated climatic variability and milkfat price variability to test the stability of preliminary conclusions. It was shown clearly that the main thrust of the field research, feeding for higher production per cow, was likely to be both feasible and highly profitable. Most of the potential means for facilitating this were shown also to be feasible and economic, though there were limitations which had not previously been obvious. Nitrogen fertilizer on pasture was shown to be potentially very valuable. Schedules for nitrogen use in practice would require much better definition of response patterns and the modelling lent weight to decisions regarding research in this area. High quality, wilted, pasture silage was shown to be an essential component of systems without maize silage where high production (160 kg milkfat per year) per cow is required. Preliminary evaluation of a summer-growing grass showed large potential benefits and supported an increase in the effort to develop such a grass for commercial use. Several other forage crops were shown to have value. Somewhat surprising was the finding that grazing these crops was often a more profitable and productive means of utilization than conservation, despite inferior efficiencies in dry matter utilization. This was due to the higher cost of conservation allied with lower quality. Maize silage was a particularly valuable forage source and it was shown how efforts to increase its yield or energy density, but not its protein content, would be rewarding. It was concluded that the interaction of modelling and field research had been valuable in both development and testing of hypotheses. Suggestions are made for more formality in validation, for greater continuity in parallel modelling and for more generality in field data collection.
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    Measurement of dry matter intake of dry jersey cows on hay and silage alone and in combination : thesis submitted ... for the Animal Husbandry section of the M. Agr. Sc. examination
    (Massey University, 1948) Chau, Hon Kau
    In the provision of an adequate supply of nutrients to dairy cows, primary consideration must be given to the capacity or appetite of the animals for the food offered. This is due to the fact that appetite, measured in terms of dry matter intake per day, limits the quantity of food (dry matter) that a cow consumes. In feeding bulky roughages to dairy cows, appetite is an important factor to be considered. Bulky roughage such as hay has a low nutrient content whereas silage is both low in nutrients and dry matter, when compared with concentrated foods.