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    Viability and profitability of the Chilean deer industry : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for Master of Applied Science, in Agribusiness at Massey University
    (Massey University, 2000) Tuset, Patricio A
    Chile is located in the south-west corner of South America, with climates that vary from hot and dry in the north to mild cold in the south. This large range of climates enables Chile to produce a variety of animal and plant products. The Chilean economy is strongly based on the exports of agricultural products. Even though the economy was negatively affected by the Asian economic crisis in 1997/98, the economic sector is through a recovery process. Diversification is one important factor in the recovery process of the economy. The Chilean economy needs to diversify (products and markets), to spread the risk involved in the trade sector. Agriculture is one of the most important sectors in the Chilean economy. This sector is composed of fruit, crops, and livestock production. Within the latter sector, the main activities are beef cattle and dairy production. In the last few years, diversification of the current productive systems in Chile has been through the introduction of new animal species, such as ostriches and deer. These activities are considered to be very new, and consequently are unknown to a vast number of people In addition to this, and in particular with regards to the deer industry in Chile, structure is almost non-existent, and its marketing channels and quality controls are unorganised. Deer farming is an opportunity to diversify the agricultural sector in Chile. As a new activity it must be developed either by domestic private or public institutions and/or by foreign investors. As any other business, this industry works within certain conditions, determined by the country's economy and situation of its sector, in this case agriculture. Deer have a highly efficient conversion rate from grass to protein when compared to other farmed animals. Deer products are commonly in demand in European and Asian countries. The farmed deer industry is a world-wide business, with New Zealand as the leader. In 1999 the New Zealand deer industry exported venison, velvet antler and co-products with a value of about NZ$210 million. For the year 2002 is forecasted that New Zealand deer exports will reach about NZ$270 million. The main markets for New Zealand deer products are Europe, USA and Asian countries. The deer industry in Chile is in an embryonic stage, and is a growing activity. However, it still needs further development in areas such as processes, transport, management practices, etc. This industry does not present a fixed structure, and deer products have to be marketed through traditional beef marketing channels. Regulations are almost non-existent, with the exception of minimal import, farming and slaughter regulations. Total farm gross margins results for deer farms in Chile suggest that deer farming in Chile is profitable (US$20,982 for Farm A and US$10,578 for Farm B). However, compared to New Zealand, the gross margins from Chilean farms are low. On a total farm and per hectare gross margin basis, New Zealand has higher gross margins compared to Chilean farms. However, on a stock units basis, Chilean farms have higher gross margins. This may be due to the fact that Chilean farms have a lower stocking rate than New Zealand. Even though gross margin results suggest that Chilean deer farms are profitable, this activity shows important issues that need to be addressed. These issues are related to infrastructure and regulations for deer production, and marketing and promotion of deer products. Probable reasons for New Zealand's higher profitability in the deer industry compared to Chilean deer farms are management practices and know-how of deer farming. The threat of new entrants in the Chilean deer industry is weak. The bargaining power of suppliers and buyers also is weak, because production and demand in the domestic market are very low. Rivalry within the industry is between deer farms and hunting operations, and is related to quality issues. In Chile, substitute products for deer products are mainly other protein sources for venison, and other herbal tonics for velvet. Strengths of the Chilean deer industry are represented by geographical and physical factors, and include the fact there are no presence of natural deer predators in Chile. The main weaknesses are related to the size of Chilean deer farms, low production levels and lack of a complete legislation. Land availability, increasing meat and healthier product consumption trends in Chile, are the main opportunities for the Chilean deer industry. The main threat to the industry in Chile is the variability of venison quality and lack of quality controls in the marketing process.
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    Prevention of antler growth in deer : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master in Veterinary Clinical Science at Massey University
    (Massey University, 1996) Weilburg, Vera
    The behavioural measures of 31 red and 39 fallow deer yearlings prior to, during and following application of rubber ring to prevent antler growth were determined. Animals were mechanically or manually restrained and treated according to their random allocation to one of the following groups: control (C), local anaesthesia only(LC), local anaesthesia and rubber ring application (LR) , rubber ring application only(R). In a further field trial 45 yearling red deer stags and 84 yearling fallow bucks were randomly allocated to control or rubber ring application. In both studies the development of the pedicle/antler post treatment was examined at intervals to investigate the percentage of loss of pedicle/antler due to the treatment and to detect possible side effects of the treatment. In red deer during the first three hours post treatment a significant increase in walking, standing and feeding and a decrease in lying were seen in the R group. Twenty minutes after treatment the R group showed a significantly higher frequency of scratching. In fallow deer a significant increase in frequency of ear flicks was observed in the R group until six hours post treatment. Other activities (walking,standing, lying) varied significantly at some time periods but no consistent patterns were observed. In both species a substantial reduction of the pedicle/antler could be observed two to four weeks after application of rubber rings. However, the loss of distal parts of the pedicle/antler varied in percentage and time until the loss. A rate of 38-100% regrowth occurred in the first study in fallow and red deer, respectively. In red deer the application of rubber rings stopped further antler growth in 36 of 37 stags thirty days after treatment. The loss of pedicle/antler occurred in 60-66.7%. In fallow deer 93% pedicle/antler loss occurred in bucks. A rate of 10 % regrowth occurred. No infections or other untoward side effects of the treatment were seen.
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    A geographical study of some factors that affect the location of deer farms in New Zealand : a thesis in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master in Arts (Geography) at Massey Universit
    (Massey University, 1978) Mawson, Ian Darcy
    This study of the rapidly-expanding industry of deer farming does not claim to be an economic treatise on the commercial viability of farming deer, nor does it claim to be a practical manual for prospective and established deer farmers. It is, however, a document designed and written to help the farmers of deer understand themselves, and their infant industry, a little more fully, and to help other interested persons gain an insight into the development of the exciting new enterprise of farming deer. The underlying theme of the study is that the present distribution of deer farms throughout New Zealant after some eight years of development within the industry, is explainable. Such explanations are expressed in terms of the past and present cultural attitudes within New Zealand to deer, the resultant legislation and official actions taken, the major modes of diffusion of both the underlying notion involved and the successful, practical methods that have evolved, the characteristics of the deer farming operation itself as well as of the people involved in it, and the relative productivity of the land employed for the farming of deer, particularly in view of man's changing knowledge of deer. Regional variations in the distribution of deer farms, and in other related phenomena, are examined, and possible explanations for these are sought. Trends that have evolved within the industry up to the present time are examined, particularly in the light of more recently-gained scientific and empirical knowledge on both productivity and profitability. The future of the industry is then viewed with reference to these trends and to marketing outlets.
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    Deer herd health and production profiling : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in veterinary science at Massey University
    (Massey University, 1995) Audigé, Laurent Jean Marie
    Deer farming in New Zealand has been developed for about 25 years, with about 1.3 million deer being currently farmed. Knowledge of deer health and production has been acquired from experimentation in research stations and from field experience, but until now there has been limited research data from commercial farms. Little was known about the relative importance of a range of management practices, farm or animal characteristics, and how they related to deer health and production. "Herd health and production profiling" is a tool for studying complex systems such as pastoral farming. This is the first time this technique has been used for the study of deer farming. It is a longitudinal observational study with an holistic epidemiological approach. It involves gathering a variety of relevant information about the whole farm which is analysed by advanced multivariable statistical techniques at farm, herd or mob, or individual animal levels. The present study aimed to explore the health and production results from selected red deer farms; to investigate risk factors associated with the most important performance outcomes, and to identify the most relevant fields for further research. This study involved observations from commercial red deer farms in the lower part of the North island of New Zealand, and was conducted over two years beginning in March 1992. Potential participating farmers were solicited by mail questionnaire. Fifteen with the appropriate stock and facilities were selected after farm visits. Farm characteristics were recorded by direct measurements or by questionnaires. Farm layout was mapped. Each deer paddock was described with characteristics such as area, topography, water supply, type of fence, shelter, exposure to wind, pasture type and weeds recorded. Deer were identified by sex (hinds or stags) and age (weaners, yearlings or adults). About 2700 hinds, 2400 weaner deer and 1500 stags were individually monitored each year. Farmers recorded daily farm management practices such as grazing management, mating and calving management, handling and disease control; individual deer data such as rearing performance of hinds, bodyweight, velvet antler grade and weight; health problems and weather data. Post-mortem investigations were conducted by researchers, local veterinarians or farmers themselves. Farm visits were scheduled in March, June, September and November to record information and collect samples with additional visits as required. Body measurements were recorded, and blood and faeces samples were collected from 30 selected deer of both sex and three age categories per farm. Pasture and soil samples were collected and measurements were taken for each paddock. A body condition scoring (BCS) system was devised, and hinds scored in March before mating, September before calving and in March of the next year at weaning. All hinds mated were pregnancy tested by rectal ultrasound during the June visit and pregnant hinds were classified as having conceived before or after May 1. Blood on EDTA was analysed for standard haematology. Sera were analysed for total protein, albumin, phosphorus, gamma glutamyl transferase, blood urea nitrogen, glutathione peroxidase, pepsinogen, copper, vitamin B12, and serological evidence of yersiniosis and leptospirosis. Faeces were analysed for egg and larval counts. Pasture mineral profiles (Cu, Co, Se, Mn, Mo, Zn, Fe, and S) and soil fertility (Olsen P, K, S and pH) were investigated. Data were entered into a relational database. Databases were corrected for erroneous and missing information by reference back to farmers, and calculations were performed for mob and farm characteristics. Data on farm and deer characteristics, management practices, deer health and productivity parameters, and biological markers were tabulated and graphed at the individual and farm level. Some of the key health and production outcome were: 84.7% and 96.8% of yearling and adult hinds conceived at mating, respectively, and 17.0 and 9.1% of them lost their progeny by weaning; mean bodyweights of weaner standardised on April 1within farms ranged 42-59 kg and 39-51 kg in stags and hinds, respectively; the percentage of stags reaching 92 kg bodyweight by one year of age within farms ranged 0-48%; the mean yearling hinds bodyweight at mating was 81.3 (SD=8.5) and 82.8 kg (SD=9.4) in 1992 and 1993, respectively; 2-year-old stags produced on average 1.16 and 1.19 kg of velvet antler in 1992 and 1993, respectively; annual mortality rates of weaners (3-15 months), hinds and stags were 5.87, 1.77 and 2.60 per 100 deer-years, respectively; deer blood characteristics and feacal parasite egg and larval counts varied significantly between farms. Specific production outcomes chosen for risk factors analysis were; hind early conception (ie before May 1) and conception per se; hind lactational status at weaning and weaning rates (as a result of progeny losses from conception to weaning); bodyweights of weaners standardised to April 1; seasonal weaner growth rates; velvet antler grade and weight (summarised as the velvet monetary value), and the most important specific health problems, ie yersiniosis, malignant catarrhal fever and dystocia. Path analysis was the main analytical technique used in this study. Preliminary univariate analyses were carried out to identify associations between single descriptive variables and the outcome variable under investigation. Variables which showed sufficient evidence of an association in these analyses (p<0.20) were included in multivariate analyses such as multiple linear or logistic regression. A forward stepwise selection procedure was used for identification of risk factors associated with the outcome under investigation (p<0.05). Null hypothesis and final path diagrams were formulated. Final path diagrams were consistent in most respects with the current understanding of deer health an production, and allowed a more thorough investigation of causal webs within the deer production system. This study confirmed some already identified or suspected relationships, such as the positive influence of yearling hind bodyweight on conception, that of imported blood lines, wapiti blood lines and grazing swards over 5-10 cm for weaner growth, and that of stag age on velvet production. Many other relationships between risk factors and outcomes were novel, thus identifying areas for further research to identify whether they were causal. The most striking of these findings were the significant positive relationships between hind body condition scores and reproductive performance, the apparent negative effect of sunshine on hind early conception, weaner bodyweight and weaner growth, and the overall apparent beneficial effect of the presence of trees in deer paddocks on these outcomes. The other most important observation is the lack of significant risk factors predicting the probability of yearling hinds rearing a calf up to weaning, suggesting an underlying limiting physiological process for yearling hind lactation. A putative epidemiological model was proposed from risk factors analyses for management options that are likely to increase the performance. Potentially the most practical management tool defined in this study was the body condition score chart, and it is proposed that it should be used industry-wide. It is also believed a farm faecal lungworm larvae index, serum albumin, copper, phosphorus and vitamin B12 concentrations, and blood packed cell volume, haemoglobin and glutathione peroxidase activities may be useful for whole-farm investigation of health and productivity. It is proposed that final models and putative management proposals should be targeted for future research. This thesis provides the most comprehensive reference data available of farm characteristics, management practices, and health and production parameters of commercial deer farms. Data have shown a large range of productivity levels and, for the first time, potential productivity levels in a commercial farming environment have been demonstrated. These data can be used at the farm level for evaluation of performance and identification of production targets, and at the industry level for strategic planning of farm output. This study shows that there is considerable potential to improve the production efficiency and productivity on many deer farms and has identified the key factors likely to achieve that potential.