Massey Documents by Type
Permanent URI for this communityhttps://mro.massey.ac.nz/handle/10179/294
Browse
7 results
Search Results
Item Spatial ecology of delphinids in Queen Charlotte Sound, New Zealand : Implications for conservation management : a thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Marine Ecology Massey University, Albany, New Zealand(Massey University, 2019) Cross, Cheryl LynneUnderstanding species’ ecological interactions and area usage depends on clear insight into their temporal and spatial patterns. Such information combined with recognition of regional human-invested interests, is crucial for developing conservation management efforts. Queen Charlotte Sound (QCS), South Island, New Zealand is a unique environment inhabited by diverse marine life, including several cetacean species. The area is subject to rising levels of anthropogenic activity inclusive of marine farming, tourism and vessel traffic. With conservation management in mind, this thesis focused on three key delphinid species: Hector’s (Cephalorhynchus hectori), bottlenose (Tursiops truncatus) and dusky dolphins (Lagenorhynchus obscurus). Specifically, this study sought to: 1) explore long-term historical temporal and spatial trends in delphinid occurrence 2) identify recent patterns in delphinid distribution, density and range 3) investigate delphinid species’ habitat use 4) initiate research of regional swim-with-dolphin tourism. Dolphin sighting data were: 1) collated from tour vessel logbooks spanning 1995–2011 and 2) collected during dedicated surveys aboard opportunistic platforms from 2011–2014. Dynamic and static environmental variables were sourced from local government agency databases to use in analyses with both datasets. Historical delphinid presence (from logbook data) was correlated with dynamic environmental variables during two separate time frames (1995–2002; 2003–2011), using Generalized Additive Models (GAMs) and Generalized Linear Models (GLMs). Spatial patterns of these sightings were explored across temporal periods (i.e., seasons; blocks of year). Dedicated survey data were used to generate kernel density estimates and to determine species’ range and central range. These dolphin density estimates were correlated with static and dynamic habitat parameters using (GAMs). Spatial predictions were then generated from the resultant significant variables. Bottlenose dolphin engagement in swim-with-dolphin encounters was assessed according to several proxies using Linear Models (LMs) and GLMs. A total of 5,295 historical records consisting of 6,055 delphinid sightings were compiled, demonstrating a long-term presence of the focal species. Of these, Hector’s dolphins consistently had the highest trip encounter rate. Seasonal patterns indicated peaks in occurrence for Hector’s during summer/autumn, bottlenose during autumn/winter and dusky dolphins during winter/spring. Further investigation with GAMs suggested that each species’ presence was associated with a unique set or range of dynamic variables. Annual variation occurred amongst all species. During both historical time frames (1995–2002 and 2003–2011), Hector’s dolphin occurrence was associated with higher SST values. Bottlenose dolphins displayed an association with mid-low SST (during 1995–2002) and with high turbidity (during 2003–2011). Dusky dolphins were influenced by low SST (during both time frames) and from 2003–2011 were also influenced by low turbidity and mid-value tidal range. Spatial patterns illustrated that Hector’s and dusky dolphins have become more restricted in their use of QCS over time. Finally, logbook data indicated an increased prevalence of swim-with-dolphin encounters, suggesting an expansion of local tourism from 2004–2011. A total of 677 dedicated opportunistic surveys were completed. These equalled 1,613 hrs of search effort spanning 263 km2. Sighting rate calculations indicated that Hector’s and bottlenose dolphins occurred more frequently than dusky dolphins. Seasonality was particularly notable amongst Hector’s dolphins, whereas the sighting and encounter rates were higher during summer and autumn. The collective range of all species suggests that delphinids utilized most of QCS. However, both the range and central range of Hector’s dolphins were more limited. Notable spatial patterns included peaks in Hector’s dolphin density mid-Sound, during summer/autumn and peaks in bottlenose dolphin density toward the outer Sound during summer/autumn. Temporal overlap was relatively high for bottlenose and Hector’s dolphins (0.67) and low for Hector’s and dusky dolphins (0.22), while spatial overlap was quite low for all species combinations. The patterns explored here offer evidence of temporal and spatial multi-species habitat partitioning within QCS. This may be due to the broader ecological trends within New Zealand and is likely attributed to the availability and movement of prey. Habitat models (GAMs) indicated a unique set of significant drivers associated with dolphin density for each species. Hector’s dolphins displayed an association with dynamic and static variables (SST, fluorescence, depth, slope and distance to the closest marine farm). Dusky dolphins were influenced by the same variables, as well as year. Consistency with the earlier models in the association with SST for Hector’s (higher values) and dusky dolphins (lower values) was detected. Bottlenose dolphins were only influenced by static variables (depth, slope and distance to the closest marine farm) and year. The habitat differences suggested by these models offer further insight to the ecological meaning of dolphin spatial patterns in QCS. In particular, these findings offer additional evidence of delphinid resource partitioning, specifically on a trophic scale. This likely occurred because all three species exhibit both dietary and foraging plasticity. While similarities were observed between comparable studies in other areas, the presence of some variation is likely due to unique physical and hydrographic regional characteristics. Spatial predictions that were generated from significant model variables were valuable in estimating potential locations of dolphin density beyond sighting locations, including areas that they previously occupied. Data representing animal area usage, like those presented here, are integral to conservation management, especially amidst growing anthropogenic influences, like tourism. This first ever tourism-based study in QCS indicated bottlenose dolphins as the main target species for swim-with-dolphin activity. A total of 190 bottlenose dolphin swim encounters were assessed according to several proxies. Interactions were very short (𝑥̅=4.2 min), with most dolphin reactions neutral (82.9 %), suggesting animal disinterest. Swim encounters occurred regularly, irrespective of group composition or behavioural state. Furthermore, tour operators travelled great distances (𝑥̅=11.7 km) amongst dolphin groups to complete swim encounters, demonstrating pursuit of interaction. Collectively, these proxies suggest a lack of dolphin engagement in swim activity. This thesis encompassed the first multi-species comprehensive assessment of delphinid density, range, habitat use and swim-with-dolphin tourism in QCS. It established a baseline of data, contributing to regional ecological knowledge. Detailed evidence of when and where three sympatric dolphin species utilized QCS was provided. Moreover, this work established an understanding of delphinid inter-specific interactions and associations with habitat variables. Applications of the findings presented here include contributions to developing comprehensive conservation management and further research. Periods and regions of high density and predicted density may be considered in regional management decisions regarding anthropogenic use of the Sound and during the design of future surveys.Item Marine mammal tourism in the Bay of Plenty, New Zealand : effects, implications and management : a thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Marine Ecology at Massey University, Albany, New Zealand(Massey University, 2015) Meissner, Anna MWorldwide expansion of marine mammal tourism over recent decades has raised international concerns in terms of the effects of these tourism practices on the species they target. Moreover, the growth and success of the industry have often outpaced conservation planning, including in New Zealand. To illustrate, tour vessels have been operating for ca. 25 years in the Bay of Plenty (BOP), situated on the east coast of North Island, New Zealand. By 2010, a total of eight permits had been granted across the region. However, development of this local industry occurred without any baseline data on species occurrence, distribution, habitat use or behaviour. This study sought to assess the historical occurrence of the marine mammal species off the BOP and determine their spatial and temporal distribution. Current distribution, density and group dynamics were examined for common dolphins (Delphinus sp.) and New Zealand fur seals (Arctocephalus forsteri), the two most frequently encountered species in the BOP and therefore, the primarily targeted species by tour operators. The extent of anthropogenic interactions with common dolphins was investigated and their effects on dolphin behaviour examined. The number of common dolphin individuals closely interacting with tour vessels was estimated and dolphin-vessel interactions were quantified to assess repetitive encounters. In the absence of previously undertaken systematic dedicated surveys, the present study investigated the historical spatial and temporal occurrence of dolphins, whales and pinnipeds in the BOP region. The examination of opportunistic data, collected between December 2000 and November 2010 via various platforms of opportunity including but not limited to tour vessels, identified fourteen species of dolphins, whales and pinnipeds occurring in the region. Confidence criteria in successful species identification were assigned based on observer expertise, diagnostic features of reported species and percentage of records reported by observer type. Common dolphins were the most frequently encountered species, followed by killer whales (Orcinus orca), bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) and New Zealand fur seals, other species being infrequently encountered. A detailed examination of common dolphin habitat use revealed discrepancies with previous findings (e.g. higher use of shallower waters), possibly explained by inherent biases to the opportunistic dataset. Dedicated surveys, conducted between November 2010 and May 2013, investigated the current distribution, density and habitat use of common dolphins and New Zealand fur seals. Both species exhibited a strong seasonality with contrasting occurrence in summer and autumn for common dolphins and in winter and spring for fur seals. Dolphin seasonality is suggested to be linked to movements into deeper offshore waters and/or potentially to neighbouring regions (i.e. the Hauraki Gulf) and most likely related to foraging opportunities. Fur seal seasonality suggests that the western BOP supports a non-breeding colony and that foraging reasons may explain the species occurrence in the region. Higher density of common dolphins and fur seals identified over the shelf break and reefs can be explained by enhanced productivity. First application of Markov chain analyses to common dolphin within oceanic waters, allowed examination of the effects of tourism activities on common dolphins in the BOP. Dolphin foraging behaviour was significantly affected, as dolphins spent less time foraging during interactions with tour vessels and took longer to return to foraging once disrupted by vessel presence. Disruption to feeding may be particularly detrimental to common dolphins in the BOP open oceanic habitat, where prey resources are typically widely dispersed and unpredictable. While the overall level of tour operator compliance with regulations in the bay was relatively high, non-compliance was recorded with regards to swimming with calves and extended time interacting with dolphins. Evidence of repetitive interactions between tour vessels and common dolphins were examined using photo-identification to assess potential cumulative impacts. An estimated minimum of 1,278 common dolphin individuals were identified in the region, for which the majority (86.9%) showed low levels of site fidelity (i.e. only one encounter). At least 61.7% of identified dolphins were exposed to tour vessel interactions. However, spatial (i.e. between the western and eastern sub-regions) and temporal (i.e. daily, seasonal and annual) cumulative exposure to tourism activities was observed for less than 10% of these individuals. This is likely explained by tour operators “handing over” groups or returning to areas preferentially frequented by dolphins (i.e. presumed foraging hotspots). Due to the opportunistic methods used for photo-identification, these results are indicative only of the absolute minimum of repeated interactions common dolphins may face in the region. The present thesis represents the first comprehensive assessment of marine mammal tourism in the BOP. It offers important contributions to research and conservation in this area via the critical assessment of historical occurrence of marine mammals in the region. This thesis also provides comprehensive and detailed insights into common dolphin and New Zealand fur seal temporal and spatial distribution in the area. This can serve management agencies to implement efficient conservation plans. While identifying that tourism operations significantly affect common dolphin behaviour and repetitive interactions result in cumulative exposure, this thesis supports adaptive management and further long-term monitoring of marine mammal species in general, and in the BOP region more specifically.Item The meaning of ecotourism : a New Zealand perspective : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Philosophy in Resource and Environmental Planning at Massey University(Massey University, 1996) Browne, Vanessa LouiseGrowing recognition of the negative impacts of conventional mass tourism has been accompanied by an increasing number of tourists seeking tourism that provides opportunities for interaction with the environment. This has created a demand for ecotourism. Ecotourism has been promoted as a means of avoiding the negative environmental impacts while retaining the positive economic impacts of tourism. The definition of ecotourism is far from straightforward. The literature identifies a variety of elements. A consistent definition of ecotourism is required to reduce debate about what ecotourism means, to distinguish between genuine ecotourism operators and those jumping on the ecotourism 'marketing bandwagon', and to inform planners about what is required for successful ecotourism. A 'core' definition of ecotourism has been developed in this thesis based on the common elements identified in recent literature. To test the relevance of these common elements, a selection of 30 people closely involved with tourism in New Zealand were surveyed. Their views support the following definition. Ecotourism is: 'tourism that is environmentally responsible, fosters conservation of natural resources through increased exposure, understanding and education and takes place in the natural environment'. The survey enabled opinion to be gathered on what the ingredients are for a successful ecotourism product. This reinforced the emphasis on education, learning, interaction and participation. The support of local communities and cultures are considered important but secondary ingredients in successful ecotourism. Implementation of a code of ethics across the industry is also favoured by those surveyed.Item The potential for ecotourism opportunities to reduce poverty in Yercaud, India : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Environmental Management at Massey University, New Zealand(Massey University, 2013) Mendez, Melody NatashaUnsustainable development worldwide, is leading to a variety of environmental, social and economic issues. Economic growth which impacts these three pillars of sustainability, affects the current populations’ ability to meet their needs or those of future generations. For many developing countries, tourism is an economic developmental tool that can contribute to their economy. However, unsustainable tourism, such as mass tourism, exacerbates socio-environmental issues and can be contributory factors to poverty and environmental degradation. Additionally, strategies to alleviate poverty and conserve the environment may conflict with each other, reducing their efficacy. These issues can be most pronounced in popular tourist destinations and highlight the need for a win-win solution. This research investigated the potential for ecotourism in the Yercaud Taluk, India, by identifying human and physical resources - including the natural and cultural features - available for development. It also identified socio-environmental problems to highlight the necessity for a win-win poverty alleviation and conservation strategy. Yercaud is a popular domestic tourist destination receiving large numbers of visitors, further emphasising the need for sustainable tourism and the vital requirement for successful implementation of ecotourism. A mixed methods approach using surveys, semi-structured interviews, personal observations and an attractions inventory was utilised. Data was captured regarding tourist preferences and destination attractivity factors based on tourist motivations; resident socio-economic data and incidences of poverty based on the presence of certain indicators; the state of the environment; and development requirements for tourist attractions. Study findings are site-specific, but the framework can be utilised in other tourist destinations. Results revealed that a tourism demand existed for ecotourism and that there are resources available for ecotourism development. However, degradation of natural and cultural resources poses a risk. Most importantly, environmental degradation significantly threatens the continued existence of the Taluk, including its tourism industry. As such, it is recommended that future development is sustainable, preserving biodiversity, the environment and community features. Keywords: Ecotourism, poverty alleviation, sustainable development, Yercaud, India.Item Responses of South Island Hector's dolphins (Cephalorhynchus hectori hectori) to vessel activity (including tourism operations) in Akaroa Harbour, Banks Peninsula, New Zealand : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Marine Biology at Massey University, Auckland, New Zealand(Massey University, 2010) Martinez, Emmanuelle; Martinez, EmmanuelleFor over 25 years, tour operators have been undertaking view and swim-with-dolphin trips in Akaroa Harbour off Banks Peninsula, east coast South Island, New Zealand. Following the international exponential growth in the commercial dolphin-based tourism industry, Akaroa Harbour is now a key eco-tourism destination in New Zealand with 32 daily permitted trips targeting Hector’s dolphin (Cephalorhynchus hectori hectori). Such a high number of trips is of particular concern given that this species is not only endemic but also endangered. Our current understanding of the effects of tourism activities on Hector’s dolphins in Akaroa Harbour is far from satisfactory. To ensure the sustainability of the economically-important and rapidlygrowing dolphin-based tourism industry, there is an urgent need for sound scientific evidence on which to base management decisions. One of the challenging issues with the assessment of tourism impacts is the lack of baseline data. Prior to beginning the evaluation of the effects of disturbance on this population, data relating to the occurrence and demographics of Hector’s dolphins, as well as vessel traffic in Akaroa Harbour, were collected from land-based platforms during three consecutive austral summers (November and March), commencing in 2005. Examination of Sighting Per Unit Effort (here number of dolphin sightings per hour) and the dolphin fine-scale spatial distribution confirmed an inshore-offshore migration and, in the case of the latter, higher density patterns between the Kaik hills and the harbour entrance. However, no specific area was associated with a particular behaviour or nursery groups. The majority of groups consisted of adults only (91.2%, n = 2,000) and comprised mainly 2-5 individuals (83.2%). Group size varied with behaviour, being larger when socialising. Activity budgets within two outer bays were very comparable to Akaroa Harbour, except for socialising. In the harbour, Hector’s dolphins only spent a small proportion (14%) of their day (0600-1800 hr) in the absence of vessels. Vessel traffic in the harbour consisted mainly of recreational vessels (72.9%) although commercial vessels represented 70.4% of observed encounters and interacted twice as long with the dolphins. No displacement was evident and as a result, Hector’s dolphins might compensate for high vessel traffic levels by adjusting their behavioural budget. To determine the effects of tourism activities on Hector’s dolphins’ behavioural budget, focal-group follows using a scan sample methodology were conducted from land-based stations and analysed using Markov chain models (n = 330 sequences). Vessel presence affected the activity budget of Hector’s dolphins by changing transition probabilities, bout durations and the time taken to return to a behavioural state once disrupted. Both diving (inferred foraging) and travelling were significantly disrupted by vessel interactions. The addition of one of more vessels during an encounter further disrupted diving. Responses of Hector’s dolphins to swim attempts were assessed from commercial tourism vessel trips (n = 420). The method of approach and swimmer placement affected the dolphins’ behaviour, with a reduction in avoidance when regulations were adhered to, i.e. using line abreast and around methods. Dolphin responses to swim encounters were also correlated with the number of successive attempts, dolphin group size and initial behaviour. Although Hector’s dolphins appear to be more tolerant of the presence of swimmers over time, some level of sensitisation to seasonally high levels of vessel interactions was also detected. The effects of swim encounters could potentially be exacerbated by the use of stones as an auditory stimulant. Specifically, swimmers who used stones had a greater probability of close and sustained approaches by dolphins than those who sang or simply floated on the surface of the water. Based on opportunistic photo-identification surveys (n = 254), 46% and 44% of the 50 identifiable individuals were infrequently and occasionally recorded interacting with commercial tourism vessels, respectively. It was also estimated that individuals using Akaroa Harbour are exposed to the highest level of cetacean-based tourism in New Zealand. This implies that dolphins that are frequent users of the harbour are likely to be more exposed to intensive tourism pressure. The high resighting rate of some individuals further suggests that frequent users are unlikely to discontinue using the harbour, even though they face increased human disturbance. Data presented here reveal the nature and the susceptibility of Hector’s dolphins to tourism activities, warranting the continuation of a moratorium on new permits. Furthermore, a reduction in daily trip numbers should be considered. Ongoing monitoring of this population’s response to tourism activities, combined with an integrated and adaptive approach to management, gives the best chance of ensuring the sustainability of the industry.Item Business va'avanua: cultural hybridisation and indigenous entrepreneurship in the Bouma National Heritage Park, Fiji : a thesis presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Social Anthropology, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand(Massey University, 2009) Farrelly, Trisia AngelaThis thesis explores the ways community-based ecotourism development in the Bouma National Heritage Park was negotiated at the nexus of Western entrepreneurship and the vanua, an indigenous epistemology. In 1990, the Bouma tribe of Taveuni, Fiji established the Bouma National Heritage Park. A growing dependence on the market economy and a desire to find an economic alternative to commercial logging on their communally-tenured land, led to their decision to approach the New Zealand government for assistance to establish the Park. The four villages involved have since developed their own community-based ecotourism enterprises. Despite receiving first place in a British Airways Tourism for Tomorrow Award category in 2002, there was a growing sense of social dysfunction in Bouma during the research period. According to my participants, this was partly due to the community-based ecotourism development process which had paid little attention to the vanua. Largely through talanoa as discussion, the people of Bouma have become increasingly conscious of references to the vanua values in their own evaluation and management of the projects. This thesis draws on Tim Ingold’s (2000) ‘taskscapes’ as, like the vanua, they relationally link humans with other elements of the environment within their landscape. This contrasts with a common Western epistemological approach of treating humans as independent of other cosmological and physical elements and as positioned against the landscape. Largely due to its communal nature, it may be argued that the vanua is incompatible with values associated with Bouma’s Western, capitalist-based ecotourism models. However, in this thesis I argue that despite numerous obstacles, the Bouma National Heritage Park is one example of a tribe’s endeavours to culturally hybridise the vanua with entrepreneurship to create a locally meaningful form of indigenous entrepreneurship for the wellbeing of its people. The Bouma people call this hybrid ‘business va’avanua’. Informal talanoa is presented in this thesis as a potential tool for political agency in negotiating issues surrounding community-based ecotourism and business va’avanua.Item Evaluation of the potential of ecotourism to contribute to local sustainable development : a case study of Tengtou Village, China : a thesis presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Philosophy in Development Studies at Massey University, New Zealand(Massey University, 2008) Jiang, JingjingIn the last few decades, “ecotourism” has emerged as a much talked about topic that is frequently linked to the term “sustainable development”. Despite the fact that the definition of ecotourism has been expanded from primarily pristine nature-based areas to modified areas, relatively few studies have been devoted to evaluating the relationship between “ecotourism” and “sustainable development” in those destinations. To address this research need, this thesis attempts to analyse the potential of ecotourism as a strategy for sustainable development, where it does not depend only on nature-based opportunities. Relevant literature on the topics of ecotourism and sustainable development was examined to develop a framework to assess ecotourism in a case study area. The case study employed was Tengtou village, China, which is one of the earliest national eco-villages. Tengtou hosted 76,200 tourists in 2006. Data was collected using qualitative methods, which included semi-structured interviews, informal discussions, focus groups, participant observation and questionnaire surveys. The research revealed that ecotourism has brought a variety of favourable impacts, and the local people hold optimistic attitudes about ecotourism, which indicate the feasibility of the ecotourism industry and the comparative success it has achieved. On the other hand, the research also found several potentially adverse effects, which suggest that ecotourism does not yet make a full contribution to local sustainable development. This thesis concludes that effective regulation and sound planning play a significant role in enabling the sustainability of ecotourism. Meanwhile, the importance of local people’s active involvement at different levels of ecotourism development in ensuring ecotourism’s success, in the long term, was also revealed. This issue of local participation, strongly pushed in the international ecotourism literature, is not something which has characterised most ecotourism initiatives in China to date. Further, considering the increasing number of tourists, the management of tourists and the expansion of physical infrastructure need to be strengthened in the research area.