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    Living in two worlds : how tourism has influenced the Balinese worldview of Tri Hita Karana : a thesis presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Social Anthropology at Massey University, Albany, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2011) Parker, Gregory Stuart
    This thesis readdresses the scarcity of research that relates to the role and influence of tourism on the Balinese worldview of Tri Hita Karana. It achieves this principally through an ethnographic study of a specific Balinese community. Three specific objectives were fulfilled; (a) to develop a clearer understanding of the origin and evolution of the philosophy and how it has been applied in contemporary Bali (b) how the different pillars of this philosophy have been affected by the processes of tourism (c) to provide insight into the reasons why the application of the philosophy in a practical context is challenging. Interviews were conducted with Balinese living within the tourist community of Nyuh Kuning. The interviews focused on their relationship and interaction with the Tri Hita Karana philosophy and how tourism had influenced this. Recurrent themes from these interviews were identified, documented and analyzed. Key conclusions drawn from the results imply; (a) that the processes of tourism have had both a positive and negative influence on the three different pillars of this worldview (b) the community continues to apply and reinforce the Tri Hita Karana in a spiritual and metaphorical sense but simultaneously struggles to maintain within a practical context a sense of harmony and balance with others and the natural environment (c) the understanding and application of the philosophy needs to be reexamined if it is to be effective in promoting balance and harmony in both the spiritual and material world. This thesis proposes recommendations for this worldview to be applied in a more realistic and concrete framework that enables its guiding principles to adapt and absorb the ongoing processes of tourism.
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    Local perspective on community based ecotourism : a case study in Ban Na in Phu Khao Khoay national protected area, Lao PDR : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Environmental Management at Massey University, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2011) Phimmakong, Kongchay; Phimmakong, Kongchay
    In 2002 the Lao government adopted a policy for nationwide economic growth based on the development of tourism as a priority sector. This aims to alleviate poverty through ecotourism and pro-poor tourism, through community based projects such as Ban Na community based ecotourism (CBE) project. This research aimed to investigate factors influencing household involvement in CBE projects in Laos. The impacts of the project within the village were also identified. To date little research with this focus has been undertaken in Laos. The findings and recommendations of this research will provide important information to the Lao Government for the future development of strategies and initiatives concerning community participation in rural ecotourism. This is particularly important for Laos as they are in the early stages of developing their ecotourism industry, especially CBE projects in rural areas. To achieve this, a single case study was undertaken focusing on Ban Na CBE project and field data was collected using semi-structured interviews and observations, and additional secondary sources. Qualitative data analysis methods were used to extract the key findings. This research confirmed that CBE has the potential to enhance socio-cultural, socioeconomic and environmental benefits for rural communities in Laos. In socio-cultural terms CBE increased household awareness of the value of their traditional culture, and in socioeconomic terms CBE allowed local households to improve their livelihoods through financial benefits. The benefits have taken place at both community and household levels. At the community level, public infrastructure has been improved such as water supply upgrading. At the household level, households actively involved have gained direct income from guiding and homestays. The new source of income has enabled households to improve their housing conditions, to purchase farm materials and investing in their children’s education. Those households that have not been actively involved in CBE (that include the very poor) also benefit from selling local products and through access to the CBE village fund. CBE has resulted in enhanced conservation outcomes for the protected area. This is a consequence of increased household awareness of the environment and their impact on it. However, CBE has also had negative impacts including an increase in solid wastes and dust and noise associated with the increasing number of tourists. Findings from this research indicate that the majority of households can benefit from CBE projects when the management of the project includes rules that limit the level of participation of any one household, thereby ensuring maximum household participation and subsequent resulting benefits. In a CBE project, there is no requirement for all households to be involved in providing services to tourists because it is not possible for some households to provide the types of service preferred by tourists. Although, not all households can actively participate in CBE, the benefits can be accessed by all those in the community. CBE has the potential to provide benefits across the community to both households who are actively and not actively involved in the project. This equitable benefit is a result of the CBE project rules that ensure assistance through the community fund, spread benefits from actively involved households and ensure those households not actively involved are able to access benefits. The findings from this research also illustrate that a local structure such as village committee can manage and establish rules for CBE projects without support from outsiders. The committee also has the potential to manage the allocation of benefits across the community. Further, rules within CBE projects have the potential to assist long term sustainability and ensure the equitable distribution of benefits throughout the community. CBE provides an opportunity for community members with different circumstances to participate in the project due to the range and nature of ecotourism activities such as guiding, hosting tourists and producing handicrafts. This is also the case for a homestay option which offers women an opportunity to be actively involved and gain direct benefits without leaving their children and household responsibilities. However, like other community based development projects, poorer households are limited from being actively involved as a result of lack of facilities, time, labour and lack of awareness of the rules around the project and potential benefits as well as personal confidence.
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    Responses of South Island Hector's dolphins (Cephalorhynchus hectori hectori) to vessel activity (including tourism operations) in Akaroa Harbour, Banks Peninsula, New Zealand : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Marine Biology at Massey University, Auckland, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2010) Martinez, Emmanuelle; Martinez, Emmanuelle
    For over 25 years, tour operators have been undertaking view and swim-with-dolphin trips in Akaroa Harbour off Banks Peninsula, east coast South Island, New Zealand. Following the international exponential growth in the commercial dolphin-based tourism industry, Akaroa Harbour is now a key eco-tourism destination in New Zealand with 32 daily permitted trips targeting Hector’s dolphin (Cephalorhynchus hectori hectori). Such a high number of trips is of particular concern given that this species is not only endemic but also endangered. Our current understanding of the effects of tourism activities on Hector’s dolphins in Akaroa Harbour is far from satisfactory. To ensure the sustainability of the economically-important and rapidlygrowing dolphin-based tourism industry, there is an urgent need for sound scientific evidence on which to base management decisions. One of the challenging issues with the assessment of tourism impacts is the lack of baseline data. Prior to beginning the evaluation of the effects of disturbance on this population, data relating to the occurrence and demographics of Hector’s dolphins, as well as vessel traffic in Akaroa Harbour, were collected from land-based platforms during three consecutive austral summers (November and March), commencing in 2005. Examination of Sighting Per Unit Effort (here number of dolphin sightings per hour) and the dolphin fine-scale spatial distribution confirmed an inshore-offshore migration and, in the case of the latter, higher density patterns between the Kaik hills and the harbour entrance. However, no specific area was associated with a particular behaviour or nursery groups. The majority of groups consisted of adults only (91.2%, n = 2,000) and comprised mainly 2-5 individuals (83.2%). Group size varied with behaviour, being larger when socialising. Activity budgets within two outer bays were very comparable to Akaroa Harbour, except for socialising. In the harbour, Hector’s dolphins only spent a small proportion (14%) of their day (0600-1800 hr) in the absence of vessels. Vessel traffic in the harbour consisted mainly of recreational vessels (72.9%) although commercial vessels represented 70.4% of observed encounters and interacted twice as long with the dolphins. No displacement was evident and as a result, Hector’s dolphins might compensate for high vessel traffic levels by adjusting their behavioural budget. To determine the effects of tourism activities on Hector’s dolphins’ behavioural budget, focal-group follows using a scan sample methodology were conducted from land-based stations and analysed using Markov chain models (n = 330 sequences). Vessel presence affected the activity budget of Hector’s dolphins by changing transition probabilities, bout durations and the time taken to return to a behavioural state once disrupted. Both diving (inferred foraging) and travelling were significantly disrupted by vessel interactions. The addition of one of more vessels during an encounter further disrupted diving. Responses of Hector’s dolphins to swim attempts were assessed from commercial tourism vessel trips (n = 420). The method of approach and swimmer placement affected the dolphins’ behaviour, with a reduction in avoidance when regulations were adhered to, i.e. using line abreast and around methods. Dolphin responses to swim encounters were also correlated with the number of successive attempts, dolphin group size and initial behaviour. Although Hector’s dolphins appear to be more tolerant of the presence of swimmers over time, some level of sensitisation to seasonally high levels of vessel interactions was also detected. The effects of swim encounters could potentially be exacerbated by the use of stones as an auditory stimulant. Specifically, swimmers who used stones had a greater probability of close and sustained approaches by dolphins than those who sang or simply floated on the surface of the water. Based on opportunistic photo-identification surveys (n = 254), 46% and 44% of the 50 identifiable individuals were infrequently and occasionally recorded interacting with commercial tourism vessels, respectively. It was also estimated that individuals using Akaroa Harbour are exposed to the highest level of cetacean-based tourism in New Zealand. This implies that dolphins that are frequent users of the harbour are likely to be more exposed to intensive tourism pressure. The high resighting rate of some individuals further suggests that frequent users are unlikely to discontinue using the harbour, even though they face increased human disturbance. Data presented here reveal the nature and the susceptibility of Hector’s dolphins to tourism activities, warranting the continuation of a moratorium on new permits. Furthermore, a reduction in daily trip numbers should be considered. Ongoing monitoring of this population’s response to tourism activities, combined with an integrated and adaptive approach to management, gives the best chance of ensuring the sustainability of the industry.