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    Transfer of sustainable energy technology to developing countries as a means of reducing greenhouse gas emission : the case of Bangladesh : a thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Applied and International Economics at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2001) Ali, Mohammad
    Over the last two decades the world has been becoming increasingly concerned about greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, global warming, unsustainable development, and poverty in the developing countries. The most acceptable way of mitigating GHG emission is the use of sustainable energy technology (SET) instead of fossil fuel. SET is available in the global market, but is outside the scope of availability for many developing countries. Due to the lack of economic and technical capabilities and wide-spread poverty, developing countries are unable to introduce SET independently, hence a need for appropriate assistance from developed countries. The case study was conducted in Bangladesh, one of the poorest countries in the world, with acute shortages of energy and largely disadvantaged rural population. The study assessed three energy technologies-biomass, solar, and wind-to identify the most viable options of SET for the rural Bangladesh. The appropriateness of the proposed SETs is assessed on the basis of certain criteria: availability of resources, cost-effectiveness, degree of technological complexity, matching demand and supply, and contribution to reducing GHG emission. It has been found that each SET taken separately, has its limitations. The main barrier for biomass energy technology is the availability of biomass due to scarcity of land, and hence, producing food is preferable to growing trees for fuel. The major limitations for solar and wind energy technologies are high levels of capital investment and technological complexity. The study proposes a combination of biomass, solar, and wind SETs as a long-term solution of energy crisis in the rural Bangladesh. It suggests relevant policy and types of assistance in the form of investment in education and training, machinery, spare parts, know-how etc. A brief proposal for capacity building has been prepared. It is expected that the proposed SETs will benefit sustainable development, poverty alleviation of rural Bangladesh, and the national socio-economic conditions. The study findings contribute to general knowledge, and are especially useful for developing countries.
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    Integrating gender into planning, management and implementation of rural energy technologies : the perspectives of women in Nepal : a thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Development Studies, School of People Environment and Planning at Massey University, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2004) Mahat, Ishara
    Women in rural Nepal are heavily involved in management of energy resources particularly biomass, which constitute the main form of rural energy as is the case in most developing countries. Women's most time consuming activities in rural areas of Nepal are cooking, collecting firewood, and processing grain, all of which are directly associated with the rural energy system. Despite women's strategic interests in improved rural energy in Nepal, energy planners (normally male) rarely consider women's roles, needs, and priorities when planning any interventions on rural energy. This study targeted at rural women in the mid hill region of Nepal, has examined the socio-economic implications of alternative energy technologies (AETs) especially in terms of saving women's labor and time and increasing opportunities for them to participate in social and economic activities. The analysis indicates that there is a positive implication of AETs on women's workload especially with access to the micro hydro mills available in the villages. In general, women have been able to save their labor and time in collecting firewood, and milling activities, although this is not always apparent due to women using the saved time for other household chores. However, AETs were rarely used for promoting end use activities (such as, energy based small cottage industries) in order to enhance women's socio-economic status. In addition, AETs had rather limited coverage and were not able to fulfill the energy demands of all rural households. There were also limitations in the adoption of such technologies mainly due to financial, technical, and social problems. For instance, the solar photovoltaic system and biogas plants were still costly for the poorest households even with subsidies. Consequently, socio-economic gaps within small communities widened and became highly visible with access to such technologies. Women's participation was mainly in terms of their involvement in community organizations (COs) and representation in Village Energy Committees (VECs) rather than their active participation in planning and decision-making processes with regard to AETs. Nevertheless, women were actively involved in providing labor in construction work relating to AETs, and creating and mobilizing saving funds as a means to be involved in small income generating activities associated with AETs. This study ultimately suggests a framework for increasing women's participation in rural energy plans and programs at local and national level, and develops policy measures to enable integration of gender into energy planning and policies. This would help to address practical and strategic gender needs in terms of fulfilling basic energy needs managed by women, and providing them with opportunities to be involved in some social and economic activities, which lead towards the self-enhancement of women.
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    Indonesian energy policy pathways : from past trends to future alternatives : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Resource and Environmental Planning at Massey University, Palmerston North
    (Massey University, 2005) Muliadiredja, Emy Perdanahari
    The main achievement of this thesis has been the development of an operational system dynamics model of the Indonesian energy system. This model attempts to integrate a wide range of data so that policy-makers can understand the connections between economic, environmental and energy policy objectives. This is the first such model to be developed for Indonesia, building on previous modelling efforts that have been restricted to regression-based forecasting and optimisation modelling. The first part of the thesis provides a systematic analysis of background data, information and the context for the model development. These chapters review the historical and political context of energy developments in Indonesia; review past energy policies as well as emerging energy policy objectives; analyse the determinants of energy demand (by regression and divisia decomposition methods) and review energy supply options. The regression analysis concluded that GDP and household income had the most significant effect on energy demand. The effect of fuel price rises, on the other hand, did not exert a significant effect on energy demand. The divisia decomposition method found that, over the entire Indonesian economy, technical change was found to give a greater contribution to energy efficiency improvements (as measured by the energy:GDP ratio) than structural changes. The system dynamics model was developed and validated using the extensive data collected, refined and analysed in the first part of the thesis. The model consisted of an economic module (17 sector input-output model), energy demand module, electric power module, heat and transport fuel module, primary energy supply module and an environmental module. Five scenarios were developed from this model in order to analyse possible energy development pathways for Indonesia, over the 1998-2020 period. These scenarios reflected five themes Business-as-Usual, Environmentally Beneficial, Economic Efficiency, Self-Sufficiency and Balancing Trade-Offs. These scenarios were assessed using a number of policy evaluation criteria to measure various energy, economic and environmental policy objectives. All of these scenarios indicated that Indonesia's energy demand and hence CO2 emissions will grow significantly over the scenario period, even if Indonesia introduces some quite stringent polices to restrict these trends - eg, CO2 emissions are expected to increase by 189% under the 'Business-as-Usual' scenario; and even though they can be reduced to a 85% increase under the 'Environmentally Beneficial' scenario, this is still a significant and somewhat alarming increase in CO2 emissions. The scenarios also highlighted the trade-offs between different sets of policy objectives as an aid to energy planning and policy-making. Finally, further areas of research that could improve the model and its use were identified: improving the data on energy supply and demand (particularly the end-use characterisation), endogenise the economic growth dynamics into the model rather than depending on regression analysis, possibly converting the input-output structure into a computable general equilibrium model, including more sectoral detail, making the model at least partly spatially-specific, and investigating more participatory approaches for further developing the model so as to enhance its uptake.