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Item Beverage-specific consumption trends: A cross-country, cross-sectional comparison.(Elsevier B.V., 2023-05-12) Torney A; Room R; Huckle T; Casswell S; Callinan SINTRODUCTION: The price of alcoholic beverages can vary for a range of reasons, including tax. Risky drinkers purchase more low-cost alcoholic drinks than moderate drinkers, contributing to beverage-specific risks for that category. The study aimed to examine the proportion of total alcohol consumption comprised by each beverage type and their correlates. Australian and New Zealand populations were compared, where drinking cultures are similar, but taxation of alcohol differs. METHOD: Data was taken from the International Alcohol Control study in Australia (N=1580) and New Zealand (N =1979), a cross national survey that asks questions on beverage specific alcohol consumption at a range of different locations. Tax rates were obtained from previous analyses run on the dataset. RESULTS: Ready to Drink (pre-mixed) beverages are more popular in New Zealand and the proportion of these drinks consumed out of total alcohol consumption by risky drinkers was correspondingly higher there. Conversely, the proportion of wine consumed by risky drinkers was higher in Australia. The consumption of spirits and beer by risky drinkers was similar in both countries. DISCUSSION: Differences found for the proportion of beverages consumed by risky drinkers between the countries are fairly well aligned with differences in the taxation of each drink type. Future adaptations in taxation systems should consider the impact of taxes on preferential beverage choice and associated harms.Item Foetal alcohol spectrum disorder in Aotearoa, New Zealand: Estimates of prevalence and indications of inequity.(John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd on behalf of Australasian Professional Society on Alcohol and other Drugs, 2023-02-21) Romeo JS; Huckle T; Casswell S; Connor J; Rehm J; McGinn VINTRODUCTION: Foetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD) is 100% caused by alcohol. The lifelong disability caused by prenatal alcohol exposure cannot be reversed. Lack of reliable national prevalence estimates of FASD is common internationally and true of Aotearoa, New Zealand. This study modelled the national prevalence of FASD and differences by ethnicity. METHODS: FASD prevalence was estimated from self-reported data on any alcohol use during pregnancy for 2012/2013 and 2018/2019, combined with risk estimates for FASD from a meta-analysis of case-ascertainment or clinic-based studies in seven other countries. A sensitivity analysis using four more recent active case ascertainment studies was performed to account for the possibility of underestimation. RESULTS: We estimated FASD prevalence in the general population to be 1.7% (95% confidence interval [CI] 1.0%; 2.7%) in the 2012/2013 year. For Māori, the prevalence was significantly higher than for Pasifika and Asian populations. In the 2018/2019 year, FASD prevalence was 1.3% (95% CI 0.9%; 1.9%). For Māori, the prevalence was significantly higher than for Pasifika and Asian populations. The sensitivity analysis estimated the prevalence of FASD in the 2018/2019 year to range between 1.1% and 3.9% and for Māori, from 1.7% to 6.3%. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS: This study used methodology from comparative risk assessments, using the best available national data. These findings are probably underestimates but indicate a disproportionate experience of FASD by Māori compared with some ethnicities. The findings support the need for policy and prevention initiatives to support alcohol-free pregnancies to reduce lifelong disability caused by prenatal alcohol exposure.Item Effective alcohol policies are associated with reduced consumption among demographic groups who drink heavily.(Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of Research Society on Alcohol, 2023-04-23) Casswell S; Huckle T; Parker K; Graydon-Guy T; Leung J; Parry C; Torun P; Sengee G; Pham C; Gray-Phillip G; Callinan S; Chaiyasong S; MacKintosh AM; Meier P; Randerson SBACKGROUND: Alcohol policies stand out among other noncommunicable disease-relevant policies for the lack of uptake. Composite indicators have been developed to measure the effects of alcohol control policy. We investigated whether drinking patterns among demographic groups from general population samples of drinkers from diverse countries are associated with alcohol control policy as measured by the International Alcohol Control (IAC) Policy Index. METHODS: Representative samples of adult drinkers from 10 countries (five high-income and five middle-income) were surveyed about alcohol consumption, using beverage and location-specific questions. MEASUREMENTS: The IAC Policy Index was analyzed with frequency, typical occasion quantity, and volume consumed. Analyses used mixed models that included interactions between country IAC Policy Index score and age group, gender, and education level. FINDINGS: Each increase in IAC policy index score (reflecting more effective alcohol policy) was associated with a 13.9% decrease in drinking frequency (p = 0.006) and a 16.5% decrease in volume (p = 0.001). With each increase in IAC Policy Index score, both genders decreased for all three measures, but men less so than women. Women decreased their typical occasion quantity by 1.2% (p = 0.006), frequency by 3.1% (p < 0.001), and total volume by 4.2% (p < 0.001) compared to men. Low and mid-education groups decreased their typical occasion quantity by 2.6% (p < 0.001) and 1.6% (p = 0.001), respectively, compared to high education, while for drinking frequency the low education group increased by 7.0% (p < 0.001). There was an overall effect of age (F = 19.27, p < 0.0001), with 18-19 and 20-24-year-olds showing the largest decreases in typical occasion quantity with increasing IAC policy index score. CONCLUSIONS: The IAC Policy Index, reflecting four effective policies, was associated with volume and frequency of drinking across 10 diverse countries. Each increase in the IAC Policy Index was associated with lower typical quantities consumed among groups reporting heavy drinking: young adults and less well-educated. There is value in implementing such alcohol policies and a need to accelerate their uptake globally.Item Classifying Alcohol Control Policies with Respect to Expected Changes in Consumption and Alcohol-Attributable Harm: The Example of Lithuania, 2000-2019(MDPI (Basel, Switzerland), 2021-03-02) Rehm J; Štelemėkas M; Ferreira-Borges C; Jiang H; Lange S; Neufeld M; Room R; Casswell S; Tran A; Manthey J; Efird JTDue to the high levels of alcohol use, alcohol-attributable mortality and burden of disease, and detrimental drinking patterns, Lithuania implemented a series of alcohol control policies within a relatively short period of time, between 2008 and 2019. Based on their expected impact on alcohol consumption and alcohol-attributable harm, as well as their target population, these policies have been classified using a set of objective criteria and expert opinion. The classification criteria included: positive vs. negative outcomes, mainly immediate vs. delayed outcomes, and general population vs. specific group outcomes. The judgement of the alcohol policy experts converged on the objective criteria, and, as a result, two tiers of intervention were identified: Tier 1-highly effective general population interventions with an anticipated immediate impact; Tier 2-other interventions aimed at the general population. In addition, interventions directed at specific populations were identified. This adaptable methodological approach to alcohol control policy classification is intended to provide guidance and support for the evaluation of alcohol policies elsewhere, to lay the foundation for the critical assessment of the policies to improve health and increase life expectancy, and to reduce crime and violence.Item Prioritising action on alcohol for health and development(BMJ Publishing Group Ltd, 2019-12-06) Rekve D; Banatvala N; Karpati A; Tarlton D; Westerman L; Sperkova K; Casswell S; Duennbier M; Rojhani A; Bakke Ø; Monteiro M; Linou N; Kulikov A; Poznyak VBDespite the existence of cost effective interventions to reduce harmful use of alcohol, many countries are not giving it the attention it deserves, say Dag Rekve and colleaguesItem Effective alcohol policies and lifetime abstinence: An analysis of the International Alcohol Control policy index(John Wiley and Sons Australia, Ltd on behalf of Australasian Professional Society on Alcohol and other Drugs, 2023-03) Leung J; Casswell S; Parker K; Huckle T; Romeo J; Graydon-Guy T; Byron K; Callinan S; Chaiyasong S; Gordon R; Harker N; MacKintosh AM; Meier P; Paraje G; Parry CD; Pham C; Williams PP; Randerson S; Schelleman-Offermans K; Sengee G; Torun P; van Dalen WIntroduction Alcohol abstinence remains common among adults globally, although low and middle-income countries are experiencing declines in abstention. The effect of alcohol policies on lifetime abstinence is poorly understood. The International Alcohol Control (IAC) policy index was developed to benchmark and monitor the uptake of effective alcohol policies and has shown strong associations with alcohol per capita consumption and drinking patterns. Uniquely, the index incorporates both policy ‘stringency’ and ‘impact’, reflecting policy implementation and enforcement, across effective policies. Here we assessed the association of the IAC policy index with lifetime abstinence in a diverse sample of jurisdictions. Methods We conducted a cross-sectional analysis of the relationship between the IAC policy index score, and its components, and lifetime abstinence among adults (15+ years) in 13 high and middle-income jurisdictions. We examined the correlations for each component of the index and stringency and impact separately. Results Overall, the total IAC policy index scores were positively correlated with lifetime abstinence (r = 0.76), as were both the stringency (r = 0.62) and impact (r = 0.82) scores. Marketing restrictions showed higher correlations with lifetime abstinence than other policy domains (r = 0.80), including restrictions on physical availability, pricing policies and drink-driving prevention. Discussion and Conclusion Our findings suggest that restricting alcohol marketing could be an important policy for the protection of alcohol abstention. The IAC policy index may be a useful tool to benchmark the performance of alcohol policy in supporting alcohol abstention in high and middle-income countries.Item The electrochemistry of alcohols in aqueous phosphate electrolytes under reducing conditions : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Philosophy in Chemistry, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand(Massey University, 2013) Wise, Nessha M.Few methods are available for the routine reduction of alcohols in synthetic chemistry. These few are dominated by reduction with HI/I2, LiAlH4 or Li/NH3 and typically involve severe conditions for other functionalities and there is little research into less severe synthetic or electrochemical methods. There is also limited mechanistic or kinetic information available for these reduction methods. This leaves an interesting area for development within fundamental knowledge. The development of an effective process for the reduction of alcohols could have many applications in pharmaceutical and chemical industries along with many environmental and economical benefits. A preliminary study on a range of electrodes established an electrochemical reduction response observed for a number of water-soluble alcohols on rotating disc copper, tin and lead electrodes in 0.1 M phosphate buffers. A response was observed for ethanol, propanol, propan-2-ol and butanol on copper rotating disc electrodes in the 0.1 M phosphate buffer. Reduction of the alcohols at the copper disc electrodes was observed at pH 8.1 with the production of a limiting current plateau. The reduction was found to be continuous and reproducible. The observed limiting current was found to increase with both increasing concentration and increasing electrode rotation rate. A Koutecky-Levich study suggested the reduction of the alcohol occurred through both mass transport and kinetic processes. A discrete, reproducible response was observed for ethanol, propanol and propan-2-ol on tin rotating disc electrodes in the 0.1 M phosphate buffer electrolyte at pH 7.3. A reductive peak was observed at −1.1 V vs Ag/AgCl in cyclic voltammetry. This formation of a reductive peak suggests that the reduction becomes progressively hindered, proposed to be due to a passivating layer forming on the surface of the electrode. The charge associated with the peak is relatively invariant with alcohol concentration (in the range 7−20 mM) and with scan rate (over the range 10−500 mV s−1). In the case of ethanol, the peak charge is typically found to be in the range 2.9−3.6 C m−2 suggesting that a passivating layer of reaction products forms with an area of 8.8−10.8 Ǻ2 for each adsorbed molecule (assuming a 2-electron process and a surface roughness factor of one). This suggests formation of a monolayer with sparsely located binding sites. The peak charge does not change with increasing electrode rotation rate, not inconsistent with the formation of a passivating layer on the surface of the electrode inhibiting any further reduction. A discrete response was also observed for ethanol, propanol and propan-2-ol on lead rotating disc electrodes in the 0.1 M phosphate buffer electrolyte at pH 8.1. A reduction peak is observed at −0.9 V vs Ag/AgCl in cyclic voltammetry. This suggests that the reduction becomes progressively hindered due to a proposed passivating layer. The passivating layer is not permanent – employing a > 30 second open-circuit rest period or having an anodic limit more positive than −0.6 V will result in the new reduction peak for each subsequent voltammogram. Multiple-cycle voltammograms exhibit only the background response if these conditions are not met. The charge associated with the peak decreases with scan rate (over the range 10−500 mV s−1) but is relatively invariant with alcohol concentration (in the range 7−20 mM). In the case of ethanol, the peak charge is typically found to be in the range 0.5−4.0 C m−2 suggesting that a passivating layer of reaction products forms with an area of 19−58 Ǻ2 for each adsorbed molecule (assuming a 2−electron process and a surface roughness factor of one). This suggests formation of a monolayer with sparsely located binding sites. The peak charge decreases with increasing electrode rotation rate. It is proposed that this is due to a surface chemical reaction following the electrochemical process – it is the product of this chemical reaction that results in a transient passivating monolayer. FT−IR analyses of the lead disc systems suggest possible products to be propandiol and butandiol.Item Ethanol and acetaldehyde metabolism in sheep : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Biochemistry(Massey University, 1973) Hendtlass, JaneEthanol and acetaldehyde metabolism in sheep has been studied in three different types of experiments:in purified enzyme systems, in liver homogenates and in the intact animals. Particular emphasis has been placed on the aldehyde oxidase enzyme from sheep liver, a molybdoflavoprotein with a broad specificity which includes aldehydes, quinines and N1-methyl nicotinamide. This thesis describes a method for preparing an enzyme solution in which sheep liver aldehyde oxidase constitutes 85% of the total protein present. Investigations of its physical and kinetic properties show that the sheep liver enzyme differs from the aldehyde oxidases previously prepared from pig and rabbit livers. In addition, an antibody to sheep liver aldehyde oxidase has been prepared from rabbit serum and has been shown to act as a specific, competitive inhibitor of the enzyme. This has been used to assess the contribution that aldehyde oxidase makes to acetaldehyde oxidation in sheep liver homogenates under several different conditions. The effects of steroids on ethanol and acetaldehyde metabolism has been investigated, special interest being taken in the effects of progesterone. Progesterone stimulates sheep liver aldehyde oxidase activity in vitro and inhibits sheep liver aldehyde dehydrogenase. Administration of progesterone to castrated sheep in vivo increased the rates of ethanol and acetaldehyde oxidation, and aldehyde oxidase has been identified as a factor in decreasing acetaldehyde concentrations in the homogenates of livers from these animals during the metabolism of exogenous ethanol. Low endogenous ethanol concentrations in peripheral venous blood of sheep are positively correlated with high progesterone levels in sheep due to its experimental administration, and to pregnancy and the oestrus cycle. Studies of the effects of disulphiram on ethanol and acetaldehyde metabolism have shown that the compound inhibits sheep liver aldehyde oxidase and aldehyde dehydrogenase enzymes in vitro, increases endogenous concentrations of acetaldehyde in peripheral venous blood, and causes acetaldehyde accumulation during ethanol metabolism in vivo. When diazepam is present together with disulphiram it provides protection from all but one of the effects shown by disulphiram alone. It does not alter the disulphiram inhibition of sheep liver aldehyde dehydrogenase. Amitryptyline is an inhibitor of both aldehyde oxidase and aldehyde dehydrogenase enzymes. It seems to increase the aldehyde oxidase response to disulphiram, and its in vivo administration causes acetaldehyde accumulation in peripheral blood during and in the absence of metabolism of exogenous ethanol. Investigations into the effects of ethanol on ethanol and acetaldehyde metabolism in sheep have shown that ethanol increases the activity of aldehyde oxidase in vitro and its chronic administration accelerates acetaldehyde oxidation in vivo. A supplementary study of the interrelationships between the relative concentrations of NADH and NAD+ , and ethanol and acetaldehyde metabolism shows that aldehyde oxidase participation in acetaldehyde oxidation is dependent on the NAD+ concentrations, and that acetaldehyde oxidation can account for much of the NADH accumulation that occurs during ethanol metabolism in vivo. Acetaldehyde oxidation during ethanol metabolism in sheep can be diverted through the aldehyde oxidase catalyzed pathway, avoiding dependence on the NAD+ -linked aldehyde dehydrogenase enzyme. The results in this thesis have shown that aldehyde oxidase can catalyze up to two-thirds of acetaldehyde oxidation in sheep liver when NAD+ is limited, and that the pathway is dependent on the endocrine state and the pattern of ethanol consumption of the animalItem Ethanolic fermentation of D-xylose and pine wood hydrolyzate by the yeast Pachysolen tannophilus : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Biotechnology at Massey University(Massey University, 1984) Wong, Tze SenThis thesis reports a study of the ethanolic fermentation of D-xylose and wood hydrolyzate to ethanol by the yeast Pachysolen tannophilus with a view to developing an effective use of renewable hemi-cellulose hydrolysis products from New Zealand forest biomass residues. Initial work briefly addressed the problem of finding a suitable yeast from natural habitats suitable for the fermentation. Soon after that work commenced literature reports suggested that preliminary conversion of pentoses by enzymatic means was a possibility. Consequently, this aspect of conversion was considered and rejected. One reason for this was that literature was drawing attention to the pentose fermenting characteristics of Pachysolen tannophilus. Laboratory scale studies demonstrated the yeast Pachysolen tannophilus to be capable of fermenting the hexose and pentose sugars present in the hydrolyzate. The yeast's specific growth rate in the hydrolyzate could be improved by neutralizing the inhibitory substances with 2 g/l of anhydrous sodium sulphite. Ethanol has an inhibitory effect on growth but can also be readily assimilated by the yeast. Fermentation studied with gyration speeds of 50, 100 and 200 r.p.m. showed that oxygen was a critical parameter affecting growth and ethanol production. Batch fermentation experiments were pursued to examine this oxygen phenomenon more closely. Cell growth, substrate uptake rate and culture pH responded strongly to the supply of oxygen. However, production of ethanol accompanied cell growth only in late "exponential" phase. Fermentation characteristics were established under continuous culture at an aeration rate of 0.37 l/l.min and values obtained were as follows; maximum specific growth rate, 0.046 h-1; biomass yield, 0.04 g/g; ethanol yield, 0.17 g/g; Ks value, 13 g/l and Ki values, 0.5 g/l. A redox potential controlled chemostat study revealed that steady-state culture poised at -50 mV exhibited a 55% increased ethanol concentration and 43% decreased xylitol concentration over the value observed without redox control. With a knowledge or D-xylose fermentation as established in these batch and chemostat experiments, it was possible to consider more detailed aspects of the fermentation which would be applicable to process development. Questions addressed included which strain of Pachysolen tannophilus should be used, what quantity of inoculum was necessary, what interactions existed between fermentation variables. Statistically designed experiments were employed to answer these questions. Empirical models so developed revealed that ethanol yield has a linear relationship with initial substrate concentration. These models have given some insight into how environmental factors affect the ethanolic fermentation by this yeast and have also indicated the optimal conditions required for an effective fermentation of wood pentoses. These important fermentation process variables were established and are expected to be useful in moving the process from laboratory scale as carried out here to a pilot plant scale of operations. The values established were temperature, 28° or lower; initial medium pH for ethanol production, 5.6 to 5.8; substrate concentration used can be up to 80 g/l of pentoses; minimum inoculum density, 5.5 g/l dry weight cells and NRRL Y-2461 was recommended as the best strain to achieve the fermentation. The pre-treatment of the prehydrolyzate by 2 g/l of anhydrous sodium sulphite was highly desirable in order to enhance growth and fermentation rates. The research has shown that Pachysolen tannophilus is capable of fermenting pentose fraction of wood hydrolyzate and that the optimal conditions for this fermentation will lead to significant utilization of wood sugar. However, in the completely mixed reactor systems used in these experiments, the ethanol yields obtained were not as attractive as those observed for hexose fermentations under similar conditions. This, it is felt, points to the greater difficulty the yeast experiences in fermenting pentoses and it also suggests the need to investigate the value of other reactor formats at seme future date.Item Optimisation of industrial whey ethanol fermentation process : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Biotechnology at Massey University(Massey University, 1993) Wongso, Dianesius Dimin; Wongso, Dianesius DiminWhey is produced during the manufacture of cheese and casein and the major constituents of whey are lactose, minerals and protein. The large mass of whey produced (typically 7 to 9 tonnes and 25 tonnes per tonne of cheese and casein, respectively) and its high biological oxygen demand (BOD), from 35,000 to 60,000 mg/l, make it necessary for dairy companies either to process whey or to dispose of it in some environmentally acceptable manner (Hobman, 1984). Increasingly, the dairy industry is recognising whey as a by-product rather than as a waste product. The extraction of soluble proteins from whey using ultrafiltration is now well established but has only a minor effect on the volume and BOD of the whey. The disposal of deproteinated whey thus can still present a considerable environmental problem and cost to the dairy industry. The lactose content of the whey ultrafiltrate (40-50 g/l) may be regarded as a potential fermentation substrate. The options of producing compounds, such as lactic acid, propionic acid, citric acid, butanol, enzymes, and vitamins by fermentation have been proposed to the industry. Despite these many options, production of ethanol has developed as the only important fermentation process for whey utilization. Ethanol is an important industrial solvent and can also be used in internal combustion engines as a substitute fuel or as an octane booster (Coombs 1984). Potable grade ethanol is used for spirit manufacture and wine fortification.