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Item "Baby brain" : examining the link between sleep, information processing speed and executive functioning during late stage pregnancy : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts (Psychology) at Massey University, Wellington, New Zealand(Massey University, 2018) Connolly, Kathryn Marie‘Baby brain’ is a term given to the phenomenon experienced by many pregnant women who feel that they have some pregnancy induced cognitive disadvantage. Traditionally the investigation of cognitive deficits during pregnancy has focussed on various subtypes of memory, but researchers have broadened their scope in recent years to include a wide range of cognitive functions. This thesis considers and expands on the conclusions of recent meta-analyses which suggest that deficits occur in the domains of information processing speed and executive functioning. The current study analyses reported findings in respect of these two cognitive domains, which have been inconsistent across individual studies. Further, the thesis seeks to explore the possible inter-relationship between information processing speed and the planning facet of executive functioning. This additional analysis is based on research with other populations indicating that perceived impairments in executive functioning can be more accurately understood as secondary consequences of impairments in processing speed. Participants were 133 women from within the Wellington region who were either in the late stages of pregnancy with their first child, or who were not pregnant and had not previously had a child. Scores on the reaction time measure of processing speed showed an impairment in simple reaction times for pregnant women when compared to non-pregnant controls. The more complex ‘choice reaction time measure’ also showed a trend indicative of impairment during pregnancy, but this did not meet the threshold for statistical significance. There was no measurable difference between pregnant and non-pregnant women on the planning measure of executive functioning. Deficits in sleep quality and altered mood during pregnancy were considered as potential moderating variables when reviewing scores on cognitive tasks. It was found that while pregnant women had significantly poorer self-reported sleep quality than controls, this did not correlate with cognitive scores. However, anxiety was shown to impact on planning time during the executive functioning task, and on performance during that task. The results of this research will help to clarify the current inconsistencies in results published in extant literature. It also provides recommendations for further exploration of these cognitive domains during pregnancy.Item The effect of seated and supine exercise on executive function in TIA patients and healthy controls : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Health Science in Sport and Exercise at Massey University, Wellington(Massey University, 2014) Grigg, Rebecca MaureenPurpose: Exercise is suggested to improve executive function in healthy adults. However, there is limited research in this area on stroke populations. The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of an acute sub-maximal bout of seated and supine exercise on executive function in transient ischemic attack (TIA; minor stroke) patients and an age-matched healthy control group (HC). Methods: Nine TIA patients (7 males, 2 females; 65.1 ± 10.1 y; 85.8 ± 16.9 kg) and fifteen HC participants (13 males, 2 females; 61.5 ± 7.1 y; 84.9 ± 16.3 kg) performed two familiarisation sessions and four laboratory-based exercise protocols on a cycle ergometer. During the laboratory-based exercise tests participants performed two continuous, incremental maximal graded-exercise tests (GXT) to volitional exhaustion; one test was performed on a seated cycle ergometer, the other on a cycle ergometer in a supine position. The two remaining tests were 30-minute sub-maximal exercise tests (Seated and Supine). The Stroop task assessed executive function and was performed prior-to (Baseline), immediately after (Post) and 15-minutes (15-min Post) following the sub-maximal exercise tests. Near infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) was continuously recorded throughout the entire testing protocol to assess changes in total haemoglobin (tHb), oxy-haemoglobin (O2Hb), deoxy-haemoglobin (HHb), and tissue saturation index (TSI). Results: Regardless of exercise modality (Seated cf. Supine) or condition (TIA cf. HC) (P < 0.05), exercise elicited significant improvements in the time to complete the Stroop task (Baseline: 61.3 ± 10.0 s; Post: 58.1 ± 9.4 s; 15-min Post 54.8 ± 9.0 s). There were no changes in the number of correct Stroop answers reported for Seated exercise across each assessment time point (P > 0.05). However, a significant decrease in the number of correct answers was revealed immediately after (Post) Supine exercise which increased 15-minutes after exercise (P < 0.05). There was a significant increase in tHb (-0.6 ± 7.3 cf. 15.6 ± 8.1 %) and O2Hb (-2.3 ± 10.9 cf. 22.2 ± 11.1 %) after exercise (Baseline to Post) which remained significantly higher 15-minutes following exercise regardless of the exercise modality (Seated cf. Supine) or condition (TIA cf. HC) (both P < 0.001). Conclusion: This study showed 30-minutes of sub-maximal exercise in a seated and supine position led to improvements in executive function in TIA and HC participants. Cognitive improvements were observed immediately and 15-minutes after exercise. Possible mediators include increases in cerebral oxygenation and neurotransmitters. These findings may be important for improving executive function, a cognitive domain greatly impaired by stroke. Future research should further investigate the underlying mechanisms by which exercise affects executive function in stroke patients.