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    A preliminary study investigating the neglected domain of mental health in Australian lifesavers and lifeguards.
    (Springer Nature Limited, 2023-05-31) Fien S; Lawes JC; Ledger J; Drummond M; Simon P; Joseph N; Daw S; Best T; Stanton R; de Terte I
    BACKGROUND: Surf lifesavers and lifeguards have provided essential education, preventative, and rescue services to the Australian community for over 110 years. In this first responder role, surf lifesavers and lifeguards are inadvertently exposed to high risk and trauma related experiences, which may negatively impact mental well-being. To date however, there has been limited research into the mental health of surf lifesavers and lifeguards, and no studies at all on the mental health of adolescent surf lifesavers. The preliminary study aimed to measure the exposure of potentially traumatic events (PTEs), post-traumatic stress symptoms (PTSS), self-efficacy, social support, and attitudes towards mental health problems in Surf Life Saving (SLS) members. METHODS: An anonymous, online survey was developed (adolescent and adult versions) and created to measure the domain of mental health in surf lifesavers and lifeguards. Pearson's correlations investigated relationships between PTEs, PTSS, self-efficacy, social support, attitudes towards mental health problems, age, years as a SLS member, and years patrolling. Spearman's Rank was used for violations of normality. RESULTS: A total of 57 surf lifesavers/lifeguards aged 13-59 years were included in the final analysis. There was a significant positive relationship between exposure to direct trauma and PTSS, which in turn, were associated with greater negative attitudes towards mental health problems towards the mental health of others, and lower levels of self-efficacy. Male and female adults with PTSS reported lower social support, whereas for adolescent males, a positive relationship between direct trauma and PTSS was observed. CONCLUSION: This research is the first to explore the mental health of Australian surf lifesavers and lifeguards. The results highlight the potential risks to mental health and well-being associated with this first responder role. More research to protect the vulnerability of this population is warranted.
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    The effects of received social support on posttraumatic stress symptoms and social adjustment of New Zealand and Philippine emergency responders : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Psychology at Massey University, Wellington, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2019) Guilaran, Johnrev Barello
    Emergency response work is associated with a wide range of psychological outcomes. One of the most commonly observed psychological consequences is posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTSS). In addition, traumatic exposure of these types are also seen to affect social adjustment, which may take the form of changes in satisfaction with social relationships and performance of social and occupational roles. In these highly stressful conditions, social support, behaviours and social interactions that provide actual assistance and embed people in loving and caring social networks (Hobfoll & Stokes, 1988), has been shown to be associated with favourable consequences. This research was conducted to test the effects of social support on PTSS and social adjustment in emergency responders – those who are mandated to protect and preserve life, property, and the environment (Prati & Pietrantoni, 2010) in the aftermath of emergencies and disasters. This thesis specifically focusses on received social support, which is the situational-environmental facet of social support. The first two manuscripts are meta-analyses on the associations of social support on psychological outcomes, to chart the topography of research in the area. Manuscript One is a systematic review and meta-analysis on the associations of social support on various psychological outcomes in emergency responders working in disasters. Manuscript Two is a meta-analysis on the influence of social support on posttraumatic stress symptoms in emergency responders, in general. In both meta-analyses, differential effects of social support were found, but there was a domination of studies on perceived social support and a scarcity of literature on received social support. Manuscripts Three through Five, which cover the results, then focussed on the association of received social support in 223 emergency responders from New Zealand (n = 195) and the Philippines (n = 28). Manuscript Three tested the main and moderating effects of received social support on PTSS while Manuscript Four tested its effect on social adjustment. For both studies, the effects of the different sources (i.e., family, peers, supervisor) and forms (i.e., emotional, tangible, informational) of received social support were also tested. Furthermore, to understand the protective assistance process between received and perceived social support, Manuscript Five tested the mediating effects of social support effectiveness and negative consequences on the relationship between received and perceived social support. The results of these studies highlight three key points. First, received social support is consistently shown to have main effects on PTSS and social adjustment. Second, reverse buffering effects were observed only in received supervisor support on PTSS. Third, support effectiveness and negative consequences do not mediate the link between received and perceived support in emergency responders. These findings suggest the limits of the effectiveness of social support on psychological outcomes, but at the same time, also suggest the potential of this naturally-occurring intervention element to enhance positive outcomes.
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    Sudden death : the impact of the immediate aftermath on police officers, victim support workers, and bereaved survivors : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Psychology at Massey University, Wellington, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2010) Hargrave, Petrina Alice-Louise
    The immediate aftermath of a sudden death is known to be distressing for bereaved survivors and the first responders who assist them. However, its impact on posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and complicated grief (CG) in survivors and secondary traumatic stress (STS) in first responders is largely unknown. This study investigated factors contributing to, and resulting from, peri-event distress on suddenly bereaved family members and friends of the deceased (n = 125) and first responders (police officers, n = 165 and Victim Support volunteer workers, n = 148). Perceived lack of first responder support and violent death independently predicted peritraumatic distress in the bereaved sample. In turn, peritraumatic distress was the biggest predictor of both PTSD and CG symptoms. Among first responders, violent death, distress at survivor reactions, and identification with the survivor predicted peritraumatic distress. Distress at survivor reactions predicted less helpful survivor support and, equal with peritraumatic distress, was the strongest STS predictor. Findings suggest that first responders' ability to support survivors and their chances of developing STS symptoms are mostly influenced by how distressing they find survivors' immediate grief and trauma reactions. The degree to which they support survivors directly affects survivors' peritraumatic distress, which affects PTSD and CG symptoms more than other pre, peri, and post-event variables in this study. Using an information processing model, the findings further the theoretical understanding of how sudden bereavement leads to PTSD, CG, and STS. It is argued that peritraumatic distress not only disrupts the processing of trauma information, resulting in PTSD, but also of grief information, leading to CG, and secondary trauma information, resulting in STS. Practical and clinical recommendations are made that may help first responders minimise psychological distress for both survivors and themselves following a sudden death, and help therapists identify survivors at risk of PTSD and CG.