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    Consumer emotional engagement with plant-based meat alternatives : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Food Technology at Massey University, Manawatū, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2024) Orr, Rebekah Eleanor
    Plant-based meat alternatives (PBMAs) can support consumers in reducing meat consumption without having to drastically change the way they eat. However, consumer uptake of PBMAs is low highlighting the need for a better understanding of the drivers of PBMA acceptance. The research presented in this thesis aimed to do this by leveraging two innovative techniques in sensory consumer research: measuring emotional response and using digital immersive environments (digital-IEs). As no emotion lexicon had been published for plant-based patties (PB-patties) or PBMAs in general before this work, an emotional lexicon specific to comparing meat and PB-patties was created. Taking a unique approach, participants were immersed (using digital-IEs) in two relevant burger-eating scenarios to evoke key emotions associated with plant-based patty (PB-patty) consumption in realistic scenarios. Different age and diet groups were included in the lexicon development process to ensure it was inclusive of the range of emotions that could potentially be experienced by end-users. The lexicon included emotions not found in generic lexicons, highlighting the value of a product-specific lexicon for gaining deeper insights. Many emotions were negatively classified, such as ‘deceived’, ‘disappointed’, and ‘anxious’, while others were positively classified, including ‘amazed’ and ‘hopeful’. The lexicon was applied with meat-eating consumers to emotionally profile a variety of commercially available meat and plant-based patties, alongside measures of liking, sensory attributes, and perceived similarity to a beef patty. Findings revealed that PB-patties closely resembling beef were the most appealing to meat eaters, receiving high liking scores and evoking positive emotional responses, sometimes comparable to those elicited by the beef patty. In contrast, patties that did not mimic meat characteristics were generally disliked and evoked negative emotional responses. These results indicate that PB-patties lacking meat-like characteristics require significant product development to gain acceptance among meat-eating consumers. The lexicon was also applied to investigate the impact of eating scenarios created using digital-IEs, and accompanying foods, on emotional response, as well as liking, towards plant-based meatball alternatives (PB-meatballs). Serving two PB-meatballs with a well-liked sauce significantly increased both liking and positive emotional response. Additionally, consuming PB-meatballs in an appropriate home environment improved liking for one product and enhanced positive emotional responses toward both. These findings emphasised the importance of considering contextual factors in future research on PBMAs to better understand how they would perform in real-life eating situations. This research provided an emotion lexicon that researchers and food manufacturers can apply to better understand consumer emotional responses to PBMAs. It identified sensory attributes driving liking and positive emotional responses such as a strong beef flavour and juicy texture, as well as those that drive disliking and negative emotional responses including a beany flavour and pasty/doughy texture, providing a guide for improved PBMA product development. Furthermore, the research demonstrated that consumer acceptance of PBMAs can be improved when served with other meal components and consumed in a contextually appropriate environment, which has implications for how PBMAs are evaluated in the field. Notably, this research showcased the potential of digital-IEs as a tool for gaining insights into consumer responses in settings that are more representative of ‘real-life’ eating scenarios than traditional sensory testing facilities (i.e. sensory booths).
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    Drivers of obesity : associations of physical activity, sedentary behaviour and diet on metabolic health and the gut microbiota : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Nutritional Science at Massey University, Tāmaki Makaurau, Aotearoa New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2023) Slater, Joanne
    Background: Regular physical activity (PA) and limited time spent sedentary are important for almost all aspects of health, including prevention and treatment of obesity. Aim: To describe the PA and sedentary behaviour (SB) of healthy, lean and obese, Pacific and NZE women, aged 18-45 years; and to explore the associations of PA and SB with diet, BF%, biomarkers of metabolic health, and gut microbiota composition. Methods: Pacific (n = 142) or NZE (n = 162) women aged 18–45 years with a self- reported body mass index of either 18.5–25.0 kg/m2 or ≥30.0 kg/m2 were recruited. Whole body dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry was used to subsequently stratify participants as either low (<35%) or high (≥35%) BF%. Eight-day accelerometery assessed PA and SB levels. Meeting the PA guidelines was defined as accumulation of ≥ 30 minutes of moderate or greater intensity activity on ≥ 5 days per week OR 150 minutes of moderate to vigorous PA (MVPA) per week. Dietary intake was assessed using a 5-day food record. Fasting blood was analysed for biomarkers of metabolic health, and whole body dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry was used to estimate body composition. Bulk DNA was extracted from faecal samples and the metagenomic sequences associated with the microbiota were analysed using MetaPhlAN and QIIME2 software. Adjusted multivariate regression models were conducted to explore the associations between PA, SB and diet, body composition and biomarkers of metabolic health, and between PA, SB and gut microbiota composition. Results: Less than half Pacific women were meeting the PA guidelines (high-BF%; 39% and low-BF%; 47%) versus 81% of low-BF% and 65% of high-BF% NZE women. Low-BF% Pacific women were more sedentary than all other women (p<0.05): Pacific low- 10.4 and high-BF% 9.93 and NZE low- 9.69 and high-BF% 9.96 hours/day. Every additional 10-minutes spent in MVPA was associated with 0.9% lower total and trunk fat and 0.7% lower gynoid fat in all women (p<0.05). Among Pacific women; every 100 cpm increase in total PA was associated with 6% lower fasting plasma insulin. Every 10-minute increase in MVPA was associated with 8% lower fasting plasma insulin in both ethnic groups (p<0.05). Among NZE women, every one-hour increase in sedentary time was associated with 0.8% higher gynoid fat (p<0.05), and longer weighted median sedentary bout length was associated with higher BF% (gynoid fat 0.3%, total body 0.4%, trunk 0.4%, android 0.4% and visceral fat 0.4% (p<0.05)) and 14% higher C-reactive protein (CRP) (p<0.05). No associations between SB and body composition or metabolic markers were found among Pacific women. There was no significant difference in average total energy intake between Pacific and NZE women or BF% groups. No women were consuming more than the carbohydrate AMDR (>65% total energy). Pacific women’s mean daily starch intake was significantly higher than NZE women (g/day, and % total energy intake). Only the NZE low-BF% groups mean fibre intake was above the recommended daily intake of ≥25g/day. All the women that were in the lowest quartile of fibre intake, and particularly the NZE women, had a lower odds of meeting the PA guidelines (OR 0.72 (p=0.008) and OR 0.66 (p=0.021) respectively) compared to women in the top three quartiles of fibre intake. All the women that were in the lowest quartile of polyunsaturated fat intake, especially Pacific women had a lower odds of meeting the PA guidelines compared women in the top three quartiles (0.76, p=0.027 and OR 0.67, p=0.030 respectively). Among NZE women, every one SD increase in total PA (197 cpm/day) was associated with 36.3% higher relative abundance of Erysipelotrichaceae (p=0.031) and 37.9% lower relative abundance of Verrucomicrobiaceae (p=0.029). Every one SD increase in SB (1.45 hours/day) was associated with a 28% lower relative abundance of Erysipelotrichaceae (p=0.030). Every one SD increase in NZE women’s total PA was associated with 23.1% higher Firmicutes:Bacteroidetes ratio (p=0.031), whereas among Pacific women, every 1 SD increase in MVPA was associated with 22.8% lower (p=0.034) Firmicutes:Bacteroidetes ratio. Conclusion: Increased time spent in PA of all intensities and breaking-up prolonged SB was associated with healthier body composition and lower metabolic disease risk in Pacific and NZE women. Compared to NZE, the impact of increased total PA on fasting insulin may be greater in Pacific women and inflammation may be a pathway through which SB impacts cardiovascular risk, especially for NZE women. Although higher total PA and lower SB was associated with some aspects of the gut microbiota composition, more needs to be known about the mechanisms driving associations between PA SB and the gut microbiota to enable these findings to be interpreted.
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    The impact of chronotype on obesity-related outcomes : diet, behaviour and metabolic health : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Nutritional Sciences at Massey University Auckland, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2023) van der Merwe, Carlien
    Background: Describing the effect of the diet on obesity risk as simply excessive energy intake, does not factor in the patterning (spacing, skipping and timing), or format (food combinations and nutrient content) of meals consumed or the specific eating behaviours that contribute to weight gain. In addition to this, chronotype, may also play a role in the complex aetiology of obesity. Being a very late (=evening type, ET) or early chronotype (=morning type, MT) not only determine preferred sleep- and wake-times but may also influence mealtimes, nutritional composition of meals and eating behaviour. This may impact the circadian timing system and in the long-term, result in weight gain, obesity, and poor metabolic function. Aims: To explore the diet in-depth (eating patterns and eating behaviours) as it relates to different chronotypes and metabolic health markers of New Zealand (NZ) European and Pacific women with different body fat profiles and varied metabolic disease risk factors. Methods: This research formed part of the PRedictors linking Obesity and gut Microbiome (PROMIsE) cross-sectional study that was conducted at the Massey University in Auckland, NZ. Healthy women, between the ages of 18 and 45 years were recruited based on healthy BMI (18.5 -24.9 kg/m²) and obese BMI (≥30 kg/m²) within NZ European (n = 162) and Pacific (n = 142) ethnic groups. Chronotype, was assessed using the Munich Chronotype Questionnaire. Fasting venous blood samples were collected to assess metabolic biomarkers (hormones, lipid profile and glucose homeostasis). Anthropometrical measurements included, body mass index (BMI), and whole-body total fat percentage (BF%), android-and gynoid- fat mass were assessed using dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry. Five-day food records were used to assess dietary intake. The Three Factor Eating Questionnaire and the Eating Attitude Test -26 was used to assess eating behaviour and - attitudes. Results: Half of participants were intermediate type (IT; n = 155, 54%) followed by ET (n = 97, 34%) and MT (n = 35, 12%), with most Pacific women being ET (n = 83, 86%) and most NZ Europeans being IT (n = 115, 65%). Due to low sample size, the MT and IT were combined as MT-IT, for some analyses. The MT-IT women had lower BMI, BF% and android to gynoid fat percentage (AG) ratio, lower concentrations of triglycerides, insulin, leptin, LDL-cholesterol, HbA1c and higher HDL-cholesterol and ghrelin in comparison with ET. Total daily energy and macronutrient intakes were similar across the chronotype groups. Women classified as MT-IT vs ET had higher intakes of energy, protein, carbohydrate, and fat in the morning (by 10:00). Conversely at night (after 20:00) the ET had a higher energy, protein, carbohydrate, and fat intake. The ET in the high BF% as well as high AG ratio group predicted lower energy, protein and carbohydrate intakes in the morning, and predicted higher energy, carbohydrate and fat intake at night compared with MT-IT. Women with an earlier chronotype (MT-IT) followed dietary patterns that consisted of high micronutrients, protein, fat and fibre, namely, the Healthy food pattern, Animal Products food pattern and the High Protein-Fat-Fibre nutrient pattern. The ET women followed the High Carbohydrate nutrient pattern high in poor quality carbohydrates. Eating behaviour was associated with chronotype. The ET had higher scores for unfavourable eating behaviours such as lower restraint scores (conscious restriction of food intake to control body weight), while having higher hunger scores in comparison with the MT-IT. In the high BMI group, ET predicted lower restraint, rigid control, but higher perceived hunger, internal locus for hunger, habitual disinhibition (loss of control of food intake) and bulimia & food preoccupation, compared with MT-IT. Conclusion: This PhD thesis found that ET when compared to MT were more likely to have a higher body composition and an unhealthy metabolic biomarker profile. This chronotype-body composition relationship may be linked to the ET’s irregular eating patterns and unhealthy eating behaviours that may contribute to the circadian misalignment. Although the chronotype groups had similar nutrient intakes, clear differences were noticeable regarding the types and combinations of foods consumed together as well as the distribution of food intake throughout the 24-hour day. The ET distributed their nutrient intake towards the night, the circadian phase of the day that is metabolically more suited to fasting in comparison with the MT-IT that had a higher nutrient intake during the morning, the feeding phase of the day. This PhD thesis showed that consuming a higher amount of nutrients in the morning and during the early part of the day, seemed to be protective against developing obesity. These findings give further insight into the differences in eating patterns and eating behaviours between non-obese and obese individuals, placing an individual’s chronotype at the center.
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    The influence of social context on food-evoked emotion : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Psychology at Massey University, Albany, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2021) Nath, Elizabeth
    Emotion measurement has seen exponential growth in recent years as consumer and sensory scientists realise that our emotional responses to food are better at predicting choice and purchase behaviour compared to hedonic or sensory evaluations alone. However, despite a large body of evidence pointing to the context-dependent nature of emotion, insufficient attention has been placed on quantifying the impact of contextual variables on consumption emotion. In this thesis, I first investigate the effects of timing, location and social setting on explicit emotional responses using a survey methodology. It was found that social meals amplified positive emotion relative to solitary meals, and that sociality and location had a larger effect on self-reported emotion compared to meal timing. I then focus on social context effects on implicit emotion using facial electromyography as a measure of the expressive component of emotion. In two closely related experiments, participants’ facial affective responses were recorded as they viewed and rated food images in the presence of a researcher, a friend, or a stranger. Analyses revealed that facial muscle activity indicative of a disgust response was inhibited in the presence of a researcher but amplified in the presence of a co-acting stranger. These findings are discussed with reference to Basic Emotions Theory and the Behavioural Ecology View of facial expressions. Finally, in exploratory analyses, I consider temporal patterns of facial responding and discuss their relationships with social context and subjective preference. The findings presented in this thesis may hopefully serve as a springboard for further investigations into contextual influences on food-evoked emotion.
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    The link between dietary diversity and body composition in New Zealand European, Māori and Pacific women : the women's EXPLORE study : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree Master of Science in Nutrition and Dietetics, Massey University, Albany, New Zealand
    (Massey university, 2019) Bell, Catherine Anne
    Eating a diverse diet improves diet quality and nutritional adequacy, but may be higher in energy and discretionary foods, which are associated with obesity. We aimed to utilise a newly validated dietary diversity questionnaire (DDQ) to explore the dietary diversity and food variety of New Zealand European, Māori and Pacific women and how dietary diversity and food variety may link to different body composition profiles (BCPs). Women’s (n=235) waist circumference, body mass index and body fat percentage (BF%) was used to categorise them into one of three BCP groups (normal-fat, hidden-fat, apparent- fat). Dietary intake was assessed using a Food Frequency Questionnaire (energy and nutrients), alongside a validated DDQ, which assessed participants dietary diversity and food variety scores (DDS and FVS). Dietary diversity was high (88%, 22/25) whilst food variety was comparatively low (31%, 78/237), especially within carbohydrates, fruits, vegetables and seafood. Overall, DDS and nutritious-DDS was lower for Pacific participants (P<0.005), whilst discretionary-FVS was higher for Māori and Pacific participants (both P<0.001). Regarding obesity, nutritious-DDS was higher in participants with a non-obese BMI (P=0.024) and BF% (P=0.029), compared to obese participants. Both DDS and N-DDS negatively correlated to WC and BF% (P<0.005). Participants in the highest tertile of DDS and nutritious-DDS had a lower WC (P=0.015, P<0.001), BMI (P=0.048, P=0.004), and BF% (P=0.002, P=0.011), despite consuming more energy (P=0.016). We were unable to demonstrate any significant anthropometric differences between tertiles of discretionary DDS nor discretionary FVS. Our results support previous prospective studies, showing that consuming an increased variety of nutritious foods may be associated with reduced female obesity, possibly more so than omitting discretionary foods. Health promotion should encourage exchanging rather than excluding, discretionary foods.
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    The prevention of weight regain in bariatric surgery patients at Counties Manukau Health : a thesis completed as part of the requirements for Master of Science in Nutrition and Dietetics at Massey University, Albany Campus Auckland, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2019) Billing-Bullen, Gypsy
    Background: Weight-regain is commonly experienced post-bariatric surgery. This study aimed to assess the impact of a structured eating behaviour group education programme on food intake and eating behaviours which contribute to weight regain. Methods: Participants (n=41) were adults at least 12-months post-bariatric-surgery, recruited through CM Health over six months, representing gender and ethnic diversity. This study evaluated whether the current dietitian-led group education session at 18- months resulted in changes to weight, body composition, quality of life, food intakes and/or eating behaviours. There was also an additional 21-month group session added, which involved a focus group to explore barriers and enablers related to weight management during the bariatric journey. Quantitative measures included body composition analysis using bioelectrical impedance, dietary and eating behaviour measures were conducted utilising validated questionnaires, and data was analysed with Wilcoxin, and Paired T-tests. Thematic analysis was used to evaluate the focus group investigations of participant (n=28) experiences. Results: There were no significant changes in body composition, eating behaviours, and energy or nutrient intakes in the three-day WFRs between 18 and 21-months post- surgery, but food variety scores significantly increased from 51.0 to 59.29 (p= 0.032). Flesh food intakes significantly increased from 2.50 to 7.50 per week between 18 and 21-months, as did savoury snack foods (1.50 to 2.0 per week, p <0.001). Quality of life significantly decreased at 18 and 21-months, compared to 12-months post-surgery (1.91, 0.95, 0.99, respectively, p= 0.002). Thematic analysis revealed five key themes: a life changing health journey, barriers to following a healthy lifestyle, challenges to changing eating behaviour, mindset changes and requiring ongoing support. The focus groups also identified that the participants desired more support throughout the bariatric program. Conclusion: Thematic analysis identified the group education programme was found valuable, providing patients with increased support post-surgery from dietitians and peers. These findings provide important insights into the challenges bariatric patients face and key learnings to develop specific supports in the future. Although quantitative improvements to eating behaviours were not found, some areas of dietary quality improved.
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    An adaption of the NutriSTEP screening tool to be suitable for nutrition risk factor identification in New Zealand preschool children aged two to five years old; adaptation of NutriSTEP as a parent administered questionnaire : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Nutrition and Dietetics at Massey University, Albany, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2019) Edge, Breanna Jade
    Background: Risk factors of poor nutrition status in childhood may continue into adulthood and determine development of chronic disease. To reduce likelihood of chronic disease in adulthood, nutrition risk factors should be identified in childhood. Nutrition screening tools (NSTs) have been developed to identify increased nutrition risk and guide appropriate nutrition intervention. There is currently no reliable paediatric NST for use in the community setting in New Zealand (NZ). However, NutriSTEP, a validated parent-administered NST developed in Canada has been shown to identify preschool aged children at increased nutrition risk. Aim: To adapt the Canadian NutriSTEP to be suitable for use in the NZ setting, and to test its reliability, as a means to identify nutrition risk in preschool children aged between two and five years, as a parent administered questionnaire. Methods: New Zealand Registered Dietitians (NZRDs) (n=3) reviewed the wording of the Canadian NutriSTEP and suggested adaptions suitable for the NZ setting. Intercept interviews with parents of preschoolers (n=26) provided non-expert reviews of the Canadian NutriSTEP. NZRDs participated in a second review to evaluate suggested wording adaptions from the parent intercept interviews. Appropriate wording amendments were confirmed and the adapted NutriSTEP was finalised for online reliability testing. Parents of preschoolers (n=79) completed online administrations of the Canadian NutriSTEP and the adapted NutriSTEP four weeks apart in a blinded manner. Intraclass Correlation Coefficient (ICC) was then used to verify test-retest reliability between administrations of the NutriSTEP. Individual questionnaire items were verified for reliability between administrations through Cohen’s Kappa statistic (κ), Pearson’s chi-square value and Fisher’s exact test. Descriptive statistics identified preschoolers at increased (medium to high) nutrition risk and individual questionnaire items with the highest percentage of nutritional risk. Results: The Canadian NutriSTEP and adapted NutriSTEP were reliable between online administrations (ICC=0.91; 95% confidence interval 0.86, 0.94; F=11.4; P<0.000). Most (13 out of 17) questionnaire items had adequate (κ>0.5) agreement between administrations, one item had excellent agreement (κ>0.75). All individual questionnaire items had a p-value p<0.05 indicating a significant relationship between administrations. The Canadian NutriSTEP identified that 20.3% of preschoolers were at increased nutrition risk, whereas the adapted NutriSTEP identified that 31.6% were at increased nutrition risk. Individual questionnaire items with the highest percentage of nutritional risk included; low intake of breads and cereals (58.2%), milk and milk products (51.9%), meat and meat alternatives (40.5%), child sometimes not controlling the amount consumed (35.4%) and low vegetable intake (34.2%). Conclusions: The Canadian NutriSTEP and the adapted NutriSTEP were reliable between online administrations when verified for test-retest reliability in the NZ community setting. The adapted NutriSTEP identified more preschoolers at increased nutrition risk than the Canadian NutriSTEP. This demonstrates the adapted NutriSTEP has increased sensitivity in the NZ setting in comparison to the Canadian NutriSTEP. To identify increased nutrition risk in NZ preschoolers and reduce likelihood of chronic disease, the adapted NutriSTEP should be considered for future use in the community setting and to guide appropriate nutrition intervention by a NZRD.
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    New pathways to obesity prevention and metabolic health : the relationship between diet and the gut microbiome : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Nutritional Science at Massey University, Tāmaki Makaurau, Aotearoa New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2020) Renall, Nikki
    Background Diet is one of the key drivers of the global obesity epidemic. Based on the results of rodent experiments, the gut microbiota may play an important role in this multifaceted disease. Additionally, the microbiota is known to be influenced by the habitual diets consumed by humans. Aims and objectives The aim of this PhD research was to characterise the habitual dietary intake of two New Zealand populations (Pacific and New Zealand European (NZE) women) with different metabolic disease risk and body fat profiles (lean and obese). The first objective of the research was to explore the relationship between habitual macronutrient intake in relation to body fat content and metabolic health markers. The second objective was to characterise a posteriori dietary patterns (derived from multiple days of dietary assessment) and to explore the association with body fat content and metabolic health markers. The third objective was to explore the characteristics of microbiota composition in relation to habitual diet (dietary patterns, foods, and nutrients), body fat content and metabolic health markers. Methods Between July 2016 and September 2017, Pacific (n=126) and NZE (n=161) women, aged 18-45 years, living in Auckland, New Zealand, were recruited to a cross-sectional study, based on their body mass index (lean and obese) and stratified as having low (<35 % body fat) or high (≥35 % body fat) body fat percentage (BF%). Dietary intake was assessed using a 5-day estimated, non-consecutive, food record and a validated semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaire, which were used to calculate habitual dietary intake using the National Cancer Institute (NCI) method. Body composition and BF% were assessed by dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry. Fasting blood samples were analysed for metabolic biomarkers (lipid and glucose profiles). Bulk DNA was extracted from faecal samples and the metagenomic sequences associated with the microbiota were analysed using MetaPhlAN and QIIME2 software. Enterotypes characterising the microbiotas of the participants were predicted in R and the species that defined enterotypes were determined using STAMP software. A posteriori dietary patterns were identified using principal component analysis. Adjusted multivariate regression models were conducted to explore the association between BF% and habitual macronutrient intake and adherence to dietary patterns, as well as the association between microbiota composition and habitual diet. Results There were no significant differences in BF% between Pacific and NZE women (p=0.498). Higher energy adjusted habitual dietary fibre (DF) intake was associated with lower BF% (β= -0.35, p≤ 0.001) for both Pacific and NZE women, and this relationship became stronger after further adjustments for protein (g/day), total carbohydrate (g/day), and total fat (g/day) intake (β= -0.47, p≤ 0.001). Women in the highest tertile of DF intake were older, had lower concentrations of fasting plasma insulin, and lower socioeconomic deprivation levels. Four dietary patterns that explained 30.9 % of the observed variance in habitual diet were identified. Higher adherence to dietary patterns characterised by core foods (the “colourful vegetable, plant protein, and dairy” and “fruit, starchy vegetables, and nuts” patterns) were inversely associated with BF%. In contrast, patterns characterised by more ‘discretionary’ foods (“sweet and fat rich carbohydrate”) and less diversity of core foods (“animal meat and fat”) were positively associated with BF% for both Pacific and NZE women. Three enterotypes were identified by higher relative abundance of specific bacterial species: enterotype 1 was characterised by Pacific and NZE women (n=146) and the abundances of Faecalibacterium prausnitzii and Eubacterium rectale. Enterotype 2 (n=70) was characterised by Pacific women, Bifidobacterium adolescentis, Bifidobacterium bifidum, and Lactobacillus ruminis; and by higher BF%, visceral adipose tissue, and concentrations of fasting insulin. Enterotype 3 (n=70) was predominately found in older NZE women with lower deprivation, and characterised by Akkermansia muciniphila, Ruminococcus bromii, Subdoligranulum species, and Methanobrevibacter smithii. Adherence to the “colourful vegetables, plant protein, and dairy” dietary pattern was positively associated with enterotypes 1 and 3 and negatively with enterotype 2. Conclusion Consuming more core foods rich in dietary fibre was associated with enterotypes 1 and 3, including lower adiposity and metabolic disease risks. In contrast, consuming more discretionary foods was associated with enterotype 2, higher adiposity and metabolic disease risks. This PhD research highlights habitual diet-microbiota-host associations, which are similar for a population of women with different metabolic disease risk, body fat profiles, and deprivation levels. Whether the microbiota is a cause or consequence of metabolic health has yet to be elucidated. However, habitually consuming more core foods rich in dietary fibre is associated with microbiota composition, and lower metabolic disease risks.
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    The perception of sweet, bitter and fatty acid taste and sensitivity to fat by mouthfeel and olfaction : associations with dietary intake, eating behaviour and obesity in premenopausal women : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Nutritional Science at Massey University, Albany, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2019) Kindleysides, Sophie Jane
    Background: Individual variability in taste perception may influence diet, possibly modifying eating behaviour and long-term food choice. Research into taste perception and weight status, dietary intake, eating behaviour and endocrine regulators of metabolic health could provide new important insights. Taste perception may be modifiable, and as such may be a target for future intervention strategies which may have the potential to prevent or treat obesity. Objectives: The aims of this study were to determine associations between (1) fatty acid taste, olfaction, mouthfeel of fat, dietary intake, eating behaviour and body mass index (BMI), and (2) associations between taste perception of glucose (sweet taste), quinine (bitter taste) and milk (fat perception) with body composition and hormonal adiposity signals (fasting insulin and leptin), dietary intake and eating behaviour. Design: For the first cross-sectional study, 50 premenopausal women assessed oleic acid taste and olfaction thresholds. BMI was calculated from weight (kg) and height (m). Dietary intake and eating behaviour were evaluated using a food frequency and three-factor eating questionnaire (TFEQ), respectively. Binomial regression analysis was used to model fatty acid taste and olfaction data and fatty acid taster status was determined (hypersensitive, n= 22; hyposensitive, n= 28). For the second cross-sectional study (the PROMISE study), 351 premenopausal Pacific and New Zealand (NZ) European women were recruited and stratified by non-obese and obese groups. Suprathreshold intensity, hedonic liking, and discrimination of taste by a ranking task were measured using a range of concentrations of sweet, bitter, and fat solutions. Participants were classified as likers or dislikers for each tastant using a hierarchical cluster analysis. Body fat (BF) was quantified by dual x-ray absorptiometry. Total energy and macronutrient intake were assessed using a 5-day estimated food record and eating behaviour was assessed by TFEQ. Socioeconomic status was measured by deprivation index (NZDep2013). Logistic and linear regression analyses were used to analyse study outcomes and to adjust for potential confounders (socioeconomic position, age, etc). Both studies were undertaken in Auckland, NZ. Outcomes: The results of the first study showed taste and olfactory detection for oleic acid were positively correlated (r= 0.325; P< 0.02). The eating behaviour disinhibition and BMI were higher in women who were hyposensitive to oleic acid taste (P< 0.05). The PROMISE study showed women who incorrectly discriminated sweet taste by ranking task were nearly three times more likely to have >35 BF% (adjusted, OR 2.9, P< 0.01). Cluster analysis revealed distinct patterns of liking for each tastant. NZ European sweet likers were twice as likely to have >35 BF% compared to sweet dislikers (adjusted, OR 2.1, P< 0.05), however, this comparison was not significant in Pacific women. Conversely, bitter likers had a decreased likelihood of having >35 BF% in comparison to bitter dislikers (adjusted, OR 0.4, P< 0.01). Having higher fasting plasma leptin concentration significantly increased the likelihood of being a sweet liker in Pacific and in NZ European combined (adjusted; OR 1.7, P< 0.05), but in NZ European women, the likelihood of this was further increased (adjusted; OR 3.6, P< 0.001). Higher fasting plasma insulin concentration also increased the likelihood of being a sweet liker (adjusted, OR 1.7, P< 0.05). New Zealand European sweet likers had a significantly higher intake of carbohydrates, all sugars and starch (199.4 ± 51.1, 87.9 ± 27.4 and 111.1 ± 34.6 g/day) when compared to sweet taste dislikers (165.9 ± 48.7, 71.4 ± 25.2 and 94.1 ± 34.7 g/day, P< 0.001, P< 0.01, and P< 0.01, respectively), however, this comparison was not significant in Pacific women. NZ European women in the sweet likers group had an increased disinhibited eating behaviour score (P< 0.01). Conclusions: Fatty acid taste perception was found to be associated with olfaction, eating behaviour and body composition. The findings from the PROMISE study have shown differences in sweet taste perception in relation to adiposity which is further associated with circulating plasma leptin and insulin concentrations. Sweet taste perception was associated with dietary intake and eating behaviour in NZ European women. The taste-diet associations observed in NZ European women were not observed in Pacific women. Therefore, population groups with lower metabolic disease risk may have dissimilar taste-diet associations compared to those with a higher metabolic disease risk. Taste perception is a promising target for future weight-loss and intervention strategies due to demonstrating links with dietary intake, eating behaviour and body composition.
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    Review of the potential for harmonisation of sustainable food system indicators, and the assessment of key aspects of nutrition and health in two atoll Islands of Kiribati, a West Pacific Island State : a thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at Massey University, Wellington, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2019) Eme, Paul Eze
    Sustainable diets, which links nutrition and food systems, cuts across all seventeen Sustainable Development Goals (SDG), with particular relevance to SDG 2. Despite much recent attention being given to sustainable diets and food systems, methodologies for assessing sustainable diets are complex and may not be generally applicable. This thesis describes a series of studies, which aimed to review the methodologies for assessing sustainable diets and potential for development of a harmonized indicators; assess the knowledge, attitude and practice (KAP) on nutrition of the households in South Tarawa and Butaritari Islands; conduct dietary assessments amongst the household members using a 24-h diet recall and weighed food records methodology in the Islands; and carry out anthropometric and body adiposity measurements of the householders and secondary school students. A total 468 households were randomly selected in South Tarawa (n=161) and Butaritari (n=307) for the 24-h dietary recall and a sub-sample of 28 households participated in the weighed food record. Another 320 subjects were recruited for the KAP study on nutrition; and 483 adults and 194 adolescents were selected for the anthropometric and body adiposity study respectively. Food consumption patterns of the households in the islands reflected high consumption of non-traditional diets and refined foods, which manifested in inadequate micronutrient intake estimates and low dietary diversity The KAP study showed the majority of respondents had good knowledge and attitudes towards good nutrition, however, these were not adequately reflected in their nutritional practices. Based on measures of bioelectric impedance, two-thirds of the subjects (68.4%) had a very high body fat (BF) %, 22.2% had high BF%, 8.8% had normal BF% and 0.6% had low BF%. Based on body mass index (BMI), about three-quarters of the subjects (73.2%) were obese and 22.5% were overweight. Obesity prevalence among the adolescents was low based on BMI and BF% criteria. In conclusion, despite the investments on nutrition programmes in Kiribati, no change was noticed from the results of 1985 Kiribati National Nutrition Survey and the findings of this study. Policies and interventions to sustainably improve diets in Kiribati, and thus reduce diet-related morbidity and mortality, need to address elements of sustainable diets.