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    Teacher agency in synchronous one-to-one Chinese online language teaching : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Applied Linguistics at Massey University, Manawatū, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2022) Dai, Chujie
    This study explores the teacher agency of four Chinese language teachers who teach in one-to-one videoconferencing settings. Since these teachers only had limited teaching experience in such a context, four preparatory workshops were designed for the teacher participants before they began teaching. The study seeks to answer three questions: 1) What kinds of competencies did teachers identify as required in their teaching via one-to-one videoconferencing? 2) What kinds of affordances and constraints did teachers perceive in teaching, and how was their agency influenced by these factors? 3) What was the main value of the preparatory workshops from the teachers’ perspective? The study is informed by ecological perspectives and employs a qualitative longitudinal case study approach. The data collected through teaching recordings, stimulated recall interviews, semi-structured interviews and group discussions formed the main data set. The data collected through a teacher questionnaire, written reflection sheets, opinion frames, and text chat on a social media platform formed the supporting data set. The main part of the study, spanning about eight months, comprised three stages. At the first stage, there were four teacher preparatory workshops, each including a lecture and a group discussion. At the second stage, each teacher conducted a series of Chinese learning sessions with a single learner, which were recorded and analysed. At the third stage, semi-structured interviews with individual teachers were conducted. The findings suggest that the teachers identified four important competencies required for online teaching: pedagogical competency, multimedia competency, social-affective competency and the competency of being reflective and reflexive. Different beliefs about teacher roles, perceived social hierarchy, and their relationships with peer teachers and the learners were the factors that enabled or constrained teachers’ actions. The perceived value of the teacher preparatory workshops was in providing opportunities for the teachers to bridge the gap between theories and teaching practice and to explore the pedagogical possibilities. They collectively formed an idealised notion of online teaching as a result of their discussions and this notion influenced their identity and teaching practice. The study concludes with implications for research methodology and a theoretical frame, shedding light on how the factors from the outer world, and teachers’ experience and aspirations could impact the enactment of agency. It is hoped that this study will be valuable for future online language teacher training and research.
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    A spoken Chinese corpus : development, description, and application in L2 studies : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Applied Linguistics at Massey University, Manawatū, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2021) Li, Lin
    This thesis introduces a corpus of present-day spoken Chinese, which contains over 440,000 words of orthographically transcribed interactions. The corpus is made up of an L1 corpus and an L2 corpus. It includes data gathered in informal contexts in 2018, and is, to date, the first Chinese corpus resource of its kind investigating non-test/task-oriented dialogical interaction of L2 Chinese. The main part of the thesis is devoted to a detailed account of the compilation of the spoken Chinese corpus, including its design, the data collection, and transcription. In doing this, this study attempts to answer the question: what are the key considerations in building a spoken Chinese corpus of informal interaction, especially in building a spoken L2 corpus of L1–L2 interaction? Then, this thesis compares the L1 corpus and the L2 corpus before using them to carry out corpus studies. Differences between and within the two subcorpora are discussed in some detail. This corpus comparison is essential to any L1–L2 comparative studies conducted on the basis of the spoken Chinese corpus, and it addresses the question: to what extent is the L1 corpus comparable to the L2 corpus? Finally, this thesis demonstrates the research potential of the spoken Chinese corpus, by presenting an analysis of the L2 use of the discourse marker 就是 jiushi in comparison with the L1 use. Analysis considers mainly the contribution就是 jiushi makes as a reformulation marker to utterance interpretation within the relevance theoretic framework. To do this, it seeks to answer the question: what are the features that characterise the L2 use of the marker 就是 jiushi in informal speech? The results of this study make several useful contributions to the academic community. First of all, the spoken Chinese corpus is available to the academic community through the website, so it is expected the corpus itself will be of use to researchers, Chinese teachers, and students who are interested in spoken Chinese. In addition to the obtainable data, this thesis presents transparent accounts of each step of the compilation of both the L1 and L2 corpora. As a result, decisions and strategies taken with regard to the procedures of spoken corpus design and construction can provide some valuable suggestions to researchers who want to build their own spoken Chinese corpora. Finally, the findings of the comparative analysis of the L2 use of the marker 就是 jiushi will contribute to research on the teaching and learning of interactive spoken Chinese.
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    Changes in beliefs of pre-service teachers in an ESP teacher education programme in Vietnam : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Education at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2019) Đặng, Thị Vân Anh
    Pre-service English for Specific Purposes (ESP) teachers’ belief change has been under-researched, so little is known about how and why their beliefs change over their teacher education programs. This study aimed to identify beliefs about ESP teaching of pre-service teachers in an ESP teacher education programme in Vietnam; explore how their beliefs changed after the ESP teaching methodology course and after the practicum; and identify factors that influenced their belief changes. A qualitative case study approach and a multiple-case study design were employed to investigate the belief changes of twelve pre-service ESP teachers. Over a six month period, data were gathered through the employment of semi-structured interviews, reflective journals, observations, and stimulated recall interviews. These qualitative data went through two main analysis processes (within-case and cross-case analyses) and were analysed inductively, deductively, comparatively, and chronologically with the support of the NVivo software program. These comprehensive processes of data collection and analyses resulted in significant research findings. The findings revealed that the pre-service ESP teachers held a wide range of initial beliefs about ESP teaching before they were provided with theory and practice about ESP teaching. These initial beliefs, which originated from their ESP learning experiences in the teacher education programme, were found to have a number of distinctive features and were susceptible to change. The pre-service ESP teachers’ beliefs tended to change in six ways and follow two key processes of belief change. The findings also revealed a wide variety of contextual and internal factors that, despite playing different roles, exerted integrated influences on their beliefs. Therefore, this study highlights the importance of not only the ESP teacher education program but also the pre-service ESP teachers themselves in the development of their beliefs about ESP teaching. The findings from this study shed fresh light on the development of beliefs about ESP teaching of pre-service teachers in an ESP teacher education program. Insights into the complexity of their belief change processes will not only facilitate the development and improvement of ESP teacher education programmes in the future but also provide a basis for further research into this unexplored area.
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    Guiding the way : how ESOL teachers can support refugee-background students transitioning to mainstream tertiary studies : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Educational Psychology at Massey University, Albany, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2019) Fraser-Smith, Amber
    Many refugee-background students from a variety of pathways enter mainstream tertiary studies in their countries of resettlement. Yet, despite having an English level sufficient to enter these courses, a growing body of research suggests these students face a number of challenges that make succeeding in tertiary studies difficult. Through the transformative paradigm and a critical perspective, this thesis explores my experiences as an English for Speakers of Other Languages (ESOL) teacher and those of five Middle Eastern refugee-background students about to start the next stage of their learning journey. By using two focus groups and an action research project, we work together to investigate ways that ESOL teachers can best support this cohort of students in their transition into mainstream studies. This thesis concludes with The COMPASS Model, designed as a result of this study to assist in guiding ESOL teachers to support refugee-background students through the use of Collaboration, Orientation, Multiple literacies, Personalised learning, Advocacy, Strategising and Self-care. Suggestions are also given on how to adapt the curriculum to better suit these learners and on how institutes and governments can live up to their ethical responsibilities and provide equal opportunities for refugee-background students.
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    Expressions of voice and trajectories of writers’ selves in academic writing : transitioning from an academic bridging course to postgraduate programmes : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Linguistics and Second Language Teaching at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2020) Butler, Eugenia
    Abstract This longitudinal study explores the use of language involved in the construction of voice in academic scripts, as well as personal perspectives relating to the concept of voice, its perceived role and its usage in an academic script. The main aim is to demystify the perceived elusiveness of voice, and present a number of textual features which are analysed longitudinally in order to identify changes in a writer’s identity. The study draws upon previous research by Halliday (1985), Ivaniç (1998) and Thompson (2014) which has provided a framework for investigating how language contributes to the process of interpersonal communication. The qualitative data resulted from an analysis of novice postgraduate ESOL student scripts, as well as from interviews with the main stakeholders involved in academic writing: the students, ESOL teachers on the bridging programme in which they studied, and lecturers in the postgraduate courses in which they subsequently enrolled. Three longitudinal interviews involving 21 students and email interviews with nine ESOL teachers and four postgraduate lecturers provided opportunities for my participants to share their perceptions of voice in academic writing, particularly on Master’s programmes, in order to show how voice reflects beliefs, past and present circumstances, and social constructions of the self. Analysed through the theoretical framework of the Communities of Practice developed by Lave and Wenger (1991) and Wenger (1998), the findings indicate that students were interested in the textual technicalities surrounding the expression of voice. They had personal views about voice which they openly expressed in interviews and applied in their scripts. Longitudinally, the voice markers used in their texts were in assonance with their willingness to contribute new knowledge to their second language (L2) disciplinary community, an aspect also highlighted in three case studies’ findings. Overall, the expressions of voice through the textual features proposed by this study diminished in scripts in the transition from the academic bridging programme to the postgraduate studies. The teachers’ approaches to voice instruction were primarily informed by their voice acquisition experience resulting from their mainstream studies, both general and academic. The postgraduate lecturers seemed to expect simplicity in the grammatical structures used in a script but held different views relating to students’ authorial contribution to knowledge in a Master’s script.
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    First language usage in multilingual international school classrooms : a study of teacher beliefs and student attitudes : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master in Applied Linguistics at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2019) Axam, Karen
    International schools offer a unique style of education and are comprised of a diverse student body and teaching faculty in terms of both language and culture. Many of these schools have both students and teachers who are bilingual or multilingual. This means that English is the Lingua Franca as the classrooms have students and teachers who do not have English as their first language (L1). In language teaching education there has been a lot of discussion in regards to students using their L1. L1 usage is often viewed as an impediment to gaining English language fluency, although many now view L1 usage more positively than in previous years. In many schools, the place and role of students’ L1 is defined within the school language policy; this may be in keeping with government laws and policies as to how schools need to support language learners. This thesis explores the beliefs and practices of a small group of teachers towards students using their L1 in the classroom and how these beliefs influence their classroom practice. The data was gathered using a qualitative approach. Additionally, an intervention period provided an opportunity for students to trial L1 strategies to see if they perceived them as effective, while also examining if the strategies had an impact on teachers’ beliefs and practices. The setting for this research was within a range of multilingual classrooms in an International school in Doha, Qatar. Results indicate that while most teachers are aware that L1 use is beneficial and that there should be some encouragement to allow students to use it, many teachers have a number of concerns regarding students using their L1. The teachers were also unaware of the school’s position on L1 use as they did not know anything about the school’s language policy. The student responses revealed that students not only enjoyed using the L1 strategies during the intervention period, but found them to be beneficial both in terms of their learning and improving their sense of well-being within the classroom. To conclude, this thesis makes a number of recommendations on how to improve students’ class engagement through L1 usage, as well as stressing the importance of all teachers knowing and understanding the language policy of the school in which they are working. Furthermore, the school has a responsibility to ensure that its language policy is reflective of current language teaching pedagogy and that all teachers are adequately trained to work with EAL (English as an Additional Language) students.
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    Identity-agency and life-course agency of English teachers in Tegal City, Banyumasan area, Indonesia : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Applied Linguistics at Massey University, Manawatū, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2018) Nur'Aini, Siti
    This study explores the identity formation of English teachers in Tegal City, Banyumasan area in Central Java, Indonesia. It draws on the frameworks of identity-agency and life-course agency within three different contexts: Ladang High School teachers, Ladang Private Tuition Centre teachers, and Ladang University pre-service teachers. It seeks to answer two research questions: 1) How does identity-agency support pre-service teachers in Tegal City to develop their professional identity? 2) What experiences contribute to the identity formation of English teachers in Tegal City within their life-course agency? A dialogical approach is used to analyse data to develop insights into how each of the nine participants exercises his/her agency in the complexity of their relationship with their social environments and values, significant others, and how they forge and navigate different pathways in making their professional identity. This study employs a qualitative approach and uses case study methods. Data was gathered through semi-structured interviews, classroom observation, narrative accounts, photographs, documents, and online contact. The first data collection stage was conducted from December 2015 to February 2016 and included site visits, observations, interviews, narrative accounts, and document collection. A researcher’s journal and field notes were used as supportive data. The second stage was conducted from August to September 2016. It was conducted through follow-up interviews and revisiting each research site to collect photographs and additional documents. The findings indicate that diverse elements contribute to the shaping of identity through life-course agency and identity-agency: religion, learning experiences, family members, regulations, and social contexts where these participants chose a particular action, changed or dropped a decision, and in so doing, they exercised their agency. Initial contact with English was generated from family members, media idols, or objects such as brochures and leaflets written in English. The teacher participants’ narratives indicated that they did not plan to be English teachers, but their journey and complex trajectories had led them to the profession. By way of contrast, the pre-service teachers’ narratives indicated that they majored in English education to be English teachers, but they ended up using English differently to shape their identity. The study concludes with implications for theory and practice arguing that the frameworks of identity-agency and life-course agency can be useful development tools for understanding both teachers’ professional lives and their trajectories in Indonesia.
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    Responses to linguistic and cultural diversity in New Zealand state secondary schools : a qualitative study : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Applied Linguistics at Massey University, Manawatū, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2019) McCarthy, Geraldine Anne
    Demand for English language learning (ELL) in New Zealand has intensified since the millennium, alongside marked increases in immigration to cater for businesses such as construction and agriculture, and the impacts of episodic earthquake damage. ELL assistance in state secondary schools in New Zealand is centred on the dynamics surrounding English for Speakers of Other Languages (ESOL) departments. This study seeks to gain an understanding of the layered contexts surrounding and within ESOL Departments by using a conceptual framework of ecology and a qualitative, case study paradigm. It draws on data from interviews, observations, documentation and researcher journaling to examine ESOL Department systems and practices in three state secondary schools with differing locations, deciles and ESOL Department structures. The findings reveal the significant weight of wide-ranging regulatory and ideological interactions connected with ESOL Departments associated with colonial aspirations, ‘Tomorrow’s Schools’ legislation and New Zealand’s bicultural status. Findings also highlight the affordances and constraints experienced in ELL by staff and students in the case study schools and explore the costs and benefits as set against the pressures of local, national and international dynamics. The study concludes with implications for personnel responsible for ELL at national and local levels. It calls for more professional development initiatives and specific ELL regulation of resources for educationalists to assist with ELL linguistic, social and cultural integration. Results are intended to enhance ELLs’ educational opportunities in schools as well as contribute to efforts for increased social cohesion between people of diverse ethnicities in this rapidly diversifying nation.
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    Speak English : a collaborative language learning system using design thinking in second language education : an exegesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Design Massey University, Wellington, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2019) Ollerenshaw, Sue
    The desire to communicate and converse in a second language is often hampered by students’ lack of confidence, low motivation, passivity, unwillingness to take risks and/or over-reliance on contrived teacher-directed activities. This aim of this project, therefore, is to design a learning system that addresses these difficulties and thus helps English language learners improve fluency. The project highlights a clear connection between design thinking and cooperative language learning, with both pedagogies promoting collaborative, real-life, team-based approaches. This, in turn, suggests that incorporating design thinking into educational design can help learners overcome the obstacles identified above and thereby become more fluent and confident when conversing. Given this, the project involves designing and prototyping a cooperative language learning system drawing on the pedagogies of design thinking and design thinking for education. This Speak English system is based on a process of ‘problem framing’ that aims to improve communicative English competence through the motivational, risk-taking, ideational and iterative aspects of design thinking . The final design system consists of prototyped examples of instructional language learning materials, including an app, a learners’ booklet and worksheets. An accompanying explanatory poster and an animated overview of Speak English illustrate how the system works and how communicational language learning activities are initiated. As it stands, the initial Speak English system provides the basis for future integration of design thinking concepts (such as problem framing) into language learning pedagogy and materials design.
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    Aid, development and English language teaching : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Philosophy in Development Studies at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2007) Alcock, Brett William
    The past few decades have seen the ascendancy of English as the global language of business and international interaction and as a result it has come to be viewed in the minds of many policy makers as fundamental to development. Accordingly English language instruction programmes have increasingly been integrated into development programmes both at a domestic recipient and international donor level. These programmes are frequently framed within the paradigms of empowerment and capacity building yet little readily accessible research seems to be available regarding the practical role English language aid programmes may play in these processes with most examination seeming to be centred either on discourse debate or cost/benefit analysis of programmes. This thesis endeavours to examine the perceptions of recipients and providers regarding the provision of English language instruction programmes. It finds that despite a provider focus on institutional capacity building extrinsic, primarily economic, considerations ensure that there is a strong recipient demand for these programmes. It also finds that, even with an increasing provider desire to use participatory paradigms, programme parameters are still largely determined by providers due to their control of funds. By reason of this the efficacy of English language instruction in promoting recipient empowerment and capacity building remains open to question.