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Item Individuals, organisations, and local context shaping small-scale agricultural initiatives addressing sustainability : two case studies in Hawke's Bay, Aotearoa New Zealand : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Agriculture & Environment at Massey University, Manawatū, Aotearoa(Massey University, 2021) van Noppen, Florentine DominiqueExperts have recognised agricultural land-use is in need of transformative change to become sustainable while feeding the world population. In this thesis it is assumed based on changing regulation, literature, and media coverage there is an on-going agricultural sustainability transition in Aotearoa New Zealand. Scholars highlighted the potential of local initiatives to address sustainability issues in locally fitting ways. The role of initiatives collectively driving transformative change has been studied in sustainability transitions literature. However, how individual initiatives are being shaped at the level of individuals and initiatives has not been studied extensively. To inform people seeking to support agricultural initiatives navigating sustainability transitions, this thesis answers the research question: How are agricultural initiatives seeking to address local sustainability being shaped in the context of a sustainability transition? After a scoping phase to identify agricultural sustainability initiatives, two agricultural initiatives addressing local sustainability in which farmers and local government were involved, were selected and studied. Insights into how these initiatives were being shaped revealed forces associated with an ongoing transition were experienced at the individual level in both cases and shaped the initiatives through mechanisms including funding requirements and expertise. Local contexts being defined by strained historical relationships in the first case and challenged practices in the second shaped how boundary objects emerged in their functions. It also shaped the role of the intermediary that had a role to mediate relationships in the second case. Relationships with organisations in both initiatives were embodied by individuals and personal relationships shaped their roles in initiatives. Personal attributes of individuals were found to shape those roles as well as the involvement of farmers and the role of the intermediary. This thesis exposes a rich field of enquiry at the level of individuals and initiatives in sustainability transitions that can be further explored by conducting additional research into small scale initiatives navigating sustainability transitions in agricultural contexts as well as other fields. More insights into this micro-level of sustainability transitions may assist organisations in their efforts to support small scale initiatives navigating a sustainability transition.Item "I like to be treated like a person, a little smile never costs a thing" : weaving kaumātua experiences of living with osteoarthritis in Hawkes's Bay, Aotearoa New Zealand into a collaborative osteoarthritis-management toolkit : a thesis presented for the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, Public Health, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand(Massey University, 2018) Awatere, Sharon A.The global burden of osteoarthritis has major ramifications for societies and governments around the world. Despite a high rate of osteoarthritis, there is a low level of osteoarthritis-management knowledge and awareness in the Māori community. Numerous studies of Māori health have identified a need for new health communication approaches to osteoarthritis-management, in order to close the disconnection between Māori and non-Māori disease rates. Positive health management is the topic of the present thesis, as viewed through Māori eyes. It has been informed by the memories and aspirations of kaumātua who have lived through the challenges of living with osteoarthritis, but have emerged with qualities that enable them to enjoy older-age and to contribute to their own whānau, the Māori world, and wider society. These factors have been brought together into a Māori-centred toolkit, appropriate to modern health promotion, as they apply to Māori health perspectives of kaumātua in Hawke’s Bay. The present research was undertaken within the interpretivist paradigm using qualitative methods and Māori principles, aligned to a tīkanga (cultural principles) base. It is argued that Western science and a Māori-centered approach are relevant to research concerning osteoarthritis-management in the contemporary context, and reflect the realities of kaumātua with osteoarthritis, who live in both the Māori world, and wider society. The study drew upon the experiences, attitudes and beliefs of 20 kaumātua with osteoarthritis, employing interviews and group hui, to inform constructing an osteoarthritis-management toolkit, process and outcome appraisal. The research found that osteoarthritis-management for kaumātua, can be characterised by a two dimensional concept that incorporates a process dimension and an interpretive appraisal dimension. The process dimension is consistent with a values perspective. The appraisal dimension can be described in terms of complementary Māori specific outcome indicators of osteoarthritis-management. The outcome indicators are encapsulated by the idea that kaumātua, family and whānau know what issues deserve their attention and what is needed to address local problems. The Māori-specific outcome indicators for optimal osteoarthritis-management identified in the present study are: ‘Manākitanga’ (kind support); ‘Tino rangatiratanga’ (self-determination, and; ‘Oritetanga’ (equity and assessment). The overarching indicator is ‘Manākitanga-ā-tinana’ (culturally relevant approach to osteoarthritis management and relationship-based care).Item Characterisation of Hawkes Bay rivers based on biotic communities : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Ecology at Massey University(Massey University, 1997) Franklyn, Graeme JohnEnvironmental data, aquatic macroinvertebrates and periphyton were sampled in 52 rivers throughout Hawkes Bay primarily between January and March, 1995. The 97 invertebrate taxa collected comprised predominantly Trichoptera (27), Ephemeroptera (17), Diptera (11) and Coleoptera (10). 49 periphyton taxa were collected which comprised of 30 diatoms, 10 Green algae and 9 Blue-Green algae. An ordination of sites by macroinvertebrate data using Detrended Correspondence Analysis (DECORANA) produced two interpretable axes. Axis 1 was correlated with measures reflecting terrain, land use and nutrient levels. Axis 2 was correlated with measures of periphyton abundance. DECORANA analysis of periphyton indicated pH had most influence over community structure, with measures of periphyton abundance, leaf litter, and water colour (absorbance at 440nm) having a secondary influence. Classification of macroinvertebrate communities using Two-Way Indicator Species Analysis (TWINSPAN) produced six groups. Sites within each group were generally found to fall into restricted areas of Hawkes Bay and these are suggested as bioregions. Each bioregion is described and could be used as a management unit by appropriate organisations. Analysis of periphyton with TWINSPAN classified sites into seven groups, but no geographical pattern was evident. Direct analysis of environmental variables and macroinvertebrate taxa using Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CANOCO) indicated that gradient, altitude, substrate size, conductivity, SO₄ and K had most influence over macroinvertebrate communities. Two widely used biotic indices of water quality (MCI and EPT) were strongly positively correlated with several chemical variables and negatively correlated with substrate related factors so it was difficult to know if macroinvertebrates were responding to water quality or physical features. Ranking taxa by their CANOCO axis scores is suggested as a way of recalibrating taxa MCI scores for a region and assigning appropriate MCI scores to new taxa. The bioregions generated from the TWINSPAN analysis of macroinvertebrates are compared to an existing New Zealand-wide ecoregion classification and also to ecoregions developed from a cluster analysis of six climatic and geomorphological factors of the 52 sites in Hawkes Bay. Little correlation was found between the bioregions and the cluster analysis, however some similarity between bioregions and the existing ecoregion classification was found, and the bioregions are suggested as possible "subecoregions". Environmental data and macroinvertebrates were also sampled in nine sites on each of two major Hawkes Bay rivers to look at longitudinal patterns in macroinvertebrate communities. Both rivers exhibited a zonation pattern rather than a continuum, and the zonation is related to degree of human disturbance.Item Roads and residents : measurement and mitigation of psychological stress : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Philosophy in Environmental and Resource Planning at Massey University(Massey University, 1997) Clare, Michelle LisaPsychological stress, suffered by property owners who are forced to relinquish land for roading development, is difficult to quantify. However, psychological stress can have a significant adverse impact on affected home and business owners. Currently, evaluations of roading projects only include a cursory assessment of psychological stress in the planning balance sheet. The aim of this thesis was to measure psychological stress suffered as a result of the imposition of roading designations and forced property purchases. The main research objectives were to examine whether it was possible to directly quantify the level of psychological stress suffered, and to identify mitigating factors that would reduce the impact of psychological stress. Forty-four residential and business property owners affected by four roading projects in Hastings and Christchurch completed a questionnaire and face-to-face interview on their personal experience of stress as a result of the roading development. A possible method of measuring stress symptoms and the impact of life changes was tested, based on the Holmes and Rahe Social Readjustment Rating Scale. Almost all interviewees acknowledged that they had experienced some degree of stress because of the roading development. However, results of the stress symptoms and life impact surveys varied and appeared to be more dependent on the individual's circumstances than on the impact of the roading project. Eighty-five percent of interviewees believed that communication between roading authorities and property owners could be improved. It appears that stress can be significantly mitigated by providing affected owners with more direct contact with roading representatives and regular information updates on the development's progress. The issue of compensation also requires addressing in order to reduce the amount of stress suffered. Currently property owners receive the market value for any land and improvements lost but no other compensation is provided. All interviewees believed that they were financially worse off regardless of whether they were losing all or part of their property. However, where an independent negotiator had been employed to finalise the property purchases, interviewees were more positive and acknowledged that this had helped achieve a win-win solution and a reduction in the level of stress they had suffered.Item The late Holocene vegetational and climate history of Western Hawkes Bay : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Quaternary Science at Massey University(Massey University, 1998) Hannan, Colleen ThereseSediments from (a) a flush, two peat mires and two ponds from a 94 km transect along the Mohaka Fault trace (a northern extension of the Wellington Fault) set in the eastern foothills of the Ruahine Range, in western Hawkes Bay, New Zealand, and (b) from a lake at Te Pohue in northwestern Hawkes Bay, are analysed for their pollen and charcoal records to reconstruct the late Holocene vegetational and climatic history of the region. Western Hawkes Bay lies westward of an obliquely converging plate boundary, the Hikurangi Trough. This oblique convergence has resulted in tectonic strain being partitioned into domains of extension, contraction and strike-slip across Hawkes Bay. Within the study area, strain has resulted dominantly in primary tectonic landforms such as fault scarps and fault lines, and secondary tectonic landforms such as tilted and folded surfaces. Features of movement along the Mohaka Fault in the geomorphology include right-laterally offset streams, ridges with distinctive linear troughs along the line of the fault and the formation of triangular spurs. The region generally has a warm, dry climate, and suffers from drought periodically, with the drought often being broken by heavy rains in the autumn. These rains may be of cyclonic proportion. Due to both seismic and co-seismic activity in the region, the landscape is both uplifted and broken, and continually subject to mass movement; localised topoclimates are also common. This study determines how the western Hawkes Bay vegetational cover and its composition have changed in response to late Holocene climate changes through analysis of sediment cores. Also addressed is the extent to which tectonism, volcanicity, fire, major storm events and human activity have left a local overprint on the regional vegetational pattern. Climatically the region may be divided into three sectors: a dry central sector, (Big Hill site); flanked by moister southern and northern sectors. The regional vegetation in the southern sector was dominated by a Nothofagus- mixed podocarp forest in the Kashmir region from c. 800 yrs BP. up to when the site was affected by fire in 1888. In the Hinerua region, 14 kms farther north, Nothofagus fusca with a minor Dacrydium cupressinum-dominated/ mixed podocarp forest, was established by c. 2790 yrs BP. The regional vegetation of the central sector from c. 3700 to 3000 yrs BP. was predominantly a Prumnopitys taxifolia/mixed podocarp forest. There was also a notable Nothofagus component. There is a c 1900 year hiatus in the vegetation record between c. 3000 and 1150 yrs BP when no sediment accumulated at the Big Hill site. The regional forest of the central sector at c. 1150 yrs BP. was still a predominantly Prumnopitys taxifolia-dominated/mixed podocarp forest. However, Nothofagus was less important in this latter forest. At Willowford, 18 kilometres north of Big Hill, the same Prumnopitys taxifolia -dominated/mixed podocarp forest was evident at about 500 yrs BP. At Hawkstone, 10 kms north of Willowford, a Nothofagus/ P. taxifolia-dominated mixed podocarp forest was established by 6500 yrs BP. About 3400 yrs BP Dacrydium cupressinum became the dominant podocarp, thus placing the Hawkstone region within the northern climatic sector from this date, up to the present. The regional vegetation of the northern sector from 1850 yrs BP. until European land clearance in the late 19th century at Te Pohue, was a Dacrydium cupressinum -dominated/mixed podocarp assemblage with a notable Prumnopitys taxifolia component. Several erosional events have been identified in the stratigraphy of the sites. By estimating the age of these events by sediment accumulation rates, some of these events have been tentatively linked to Grant's (1985) hypothesis of periodic climate-forced erosional events having partially destroyed the forest cover in the western Hawkes Bay region. Using radiocarbon dates from this study, often in conjunction with sediment accumulation rates, it has been possible to identify some erosional events as earthquake generated by linking these events to other known and radiocarbon dated movements along the Mohaka Fault trace in western Hawkes Bay. Volcanicity has been identified as a factor influencing forest cover in the northern pari of western Hawkes Bay. At Hawkstone, microscopic charcoal has been identifed at several levels throughout the 6500 year pollen record of the site. However, the sediment accumulation rate was too low to determine the exact nature of the disturbance, and the forest quickly recovered in each case. Although a 0.20 m layer of reworked lapilli from the Waimihia eruption (3280 ± 20 yrs BP.) was recorded at the site, no fire or disturbance to the vegetation was recorded. However, above the Taupo Tephra (1850 ± 10 yrs BP.) fire is continually recorded at the site. As a result the regional forest did not return. Primary ignimbrite from the Taupo eruption forms the base of the Te Pohue site. The regional forest was destroyed by fire in conjunction with this event. A similar forest to before the event, was re-established within c. 230 years. Polynesian deforestation is identified by the advent of high frequencies of Pteridium exculentum and microscopic charcoal in the pollen record in the Willowford region c. 480 ± 170 yrs BP., and in the Big Hill region c. 435 ° 140 yrs BP.; and are coincident with the decline of indigenous forests in each case. European settlement, commencing in the mid-nineteenth century at Te Pohue and about 1880 AD. at Hinerua, is identified by the decline of indigenous forests in these areas, coincident with the appearance of exotic pollen types such as Pinus. Taraxacum and pasture grasses.Item The effect of land use on benthic communities in Hawkes Bay streams of differing geology : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Ecology at Massey University(Massey University, 1999) Gibson, Jason RossBenthic macroinvertebrate and periphyton communities of streams draining four different land use types within four distinct geological types were sampled between December 1996 and January 1997. Catchment land use comprised either standing mature or logged exotic forest, native forest, or hill country pasture. The geological types of these catchments were either Mesozoic sandstone-greywacke, Pleistocene-greywacke, Tertiary mudstone, or limestone in origin. Pastoral stream invertebrate community structure was significantly different from that found in forested streams, with no clear distinction separating communities from standing exotic, logged exotic, and native forest sites. Pastoral communities were dominated by dipterans and trichopterans. while in contrast, macroinvertebrate communities in streams draining sandstone-greywacke catchments were dominated by ephemeropterans and plecopterans, showing a clear influence of catchment geology on benthic macroinvertebrate communities. This sandstone-greywacke effect appeared to be independent of land use. Periphyton biomass was greatest in pastoral and exotic sites, particularly those draining limestone catchments. High nutrient and conductivity levels, both of which are characteristic of limestone streams, appeared to override the effect of light restrictions on periphyton growth in exotic forest sites. Overall, both geology and land use played major roles in determining the structure of stream benthic communities, with factors such as altitude and stream temperature also important influences on these communities. In November and December 1997, nutrient, shade, and disturbance effects were examined in periphyton communities colonising artificial substrates. These substrates were left in the 8 forested Hawkes Bay streams for 28 days with disturbance treatment substrates being physically abraded every 7 days. Nutrients (N + P) were added to nutrient treatment substrates and polythene cloth was used to create an artificially shaded environment for shade treatment substrates. Light availability and percentage canopy cover had the greatest effect upon periphyton, with light limitation being exhibited in closed canopy systems. Nutrient supply was also a factor determining periphyton biomass at both open and closed sites, although only up to a limit. Physical disturbance successfully removed organic matter from substrates as well as reducing chlorophyll a levels at open sites, however light and nutrient levels were more important determinants of chlorophyll a concentrations. In summary, both land use and geology play a considerable role in influencing both macroinvertebrate community structure and periphyton biomass. The geological influence was mediated through direct effects on nutrient inputs into the stream (as measured by conductivity), as well as by the indirect influence upon stream water temperatures. The influence of land use on benthic communities is predominantly as a result of shade levels created by vegetation types and enrichment levels derived from agriculturally influenced land. These results are of particular importance when comparing or analysing results from studies involving different land use types, particularly when these land uses cover a range of altitudes or are found in more than one geological type.Item Systematics of Eucolaspis (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) in New Zealand and ecology of Hawke's Bay lineage : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Ecology at Massey University, Manawatu, New Zealand(Massey University, 2012) Doddala, Prasad R CEucolaspis Sharp 1886 includes a group of native beetle species, one or more of which infest exotic fruit crops. Economic losses suffered by organic apple orchards in Hawke’s Bay prompt a revisit to ecological basics of the beetle. Taxonomic, behavioural and ecological knowledge gaps are addressed in the current research project. Phylogenetic analysis, based on cytochrome oxidase subunit 1 region of mitochondrial DNA, revealed that only one genetic lineage infests apples in Hawke’s Bay and that there are only three putative species in mainland New Zealand with another separate species on Three Kings Islands. These findings are well supported by differences in male genitalia shape. Morphometric analyses also supported the phylogeny to some extent. The current findings on host location show that Eucolaspis sp. “Hawke’s Bay” beetles use plant odours to detect and discriminate host and non-host plants. The beetles were attracted to fresh leaf / fruit odour of apple and blackberry, but not to either clover or broad-leaved dock. The beetles were not able to distinguish between damaged and undamaged host plants and between closely related species of host plants just by olfaction. Irrespective of the geographical origin and ancestral host plant, beetles preferred to feed on blackberry over apple. Emergence sex ratio in Eucolaspis sp. “Hawke’s Bay” is found to be female-biased (0.35), whereas adult sex ratio in the active population on foliage was slightly male-biased (0.55) in organic apple orchards in Hawke’s Bay. No evidence for a short-range sex pheromone was found through olfactometer bioassays. All the mating attempts in mating bioassays proceeded only after either antennal contact or licking of female’s elytra by the male. Ablating antennae didn’t impair mating, but significant delay was observed in locating the female. Males attempted to mate with intact and washed female cadavers, 45% and 35% respectively of the tested males, whereas no mating attempts were initiated towards male cadavers. Males of Eucolaspis sp. “Hawke’s Bay” appear to utilize both contact sex pheromones and vision in locating potential female mates. It was found in the current study that endogeic macro-invertebrates were more abundant in orchards that historically had high bronze beetle incidence, whereas epigeic macro-invertebrates were more abundant in orchards that had historically low bronze beetle incidence. It may be that abundant surface-dwelling generalist predators in low bronze beetle orchards control bronze beetle from establishing in these orchards. However, this could only be confirmed by further research on specific predation of spiders and other generalist predators on bronze beetle. A phenology model for adult emergence is proposed based on threshold temperature (4.69 ± 0.89 0C), degree-days (237 ± 22 0C days) and biofix date of September 11th. The model predicted adult emergence with a precision of ±4 days when tested with field data.Item Late quaternary landscape evolution of western Hawke's Bay, North Island, New Zealand : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Earth Science at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand(Massey University, 1997) Hammond, Andrew PeterWestern Hawke's Bay, North Island, New Zealand, lies landward of an obliquely convergent offshore plate boundary, the Hikurangi Trough. Landscape elements exhibit classical island arc terrains. From east to west these are: an accretionary wedge, forearc basin, frontal-ridge, and a volcanic backarc basin. The forearc was subdivided into four land systems: ranges, inland basins, hill-country, and plains. Soil patterns and geomorphological processes within each land system are detailed. The architecture and subsequent sculpturing of land systems have been subject to a complex interplay between: tectonic, climatic, fluvial, aeolian and volcanic regimes. These regimes have had a marked bearing upon the stability/instability of the landscape and its evolution. The timing of stability/instability cycles within the district's coverbeds and aggradational/degradational terraces is facilitated by interbedded rhyolitic and andesitic tephra chronohorizons and ignimbrites (Taupo, Oruanui, Rabbit Gully and Potaka) derived from the Taupo Volcanic Zone. The glass chemistries of unknown rhyolitic tephras and ignimbrites were matched with those from the well-dated master sections around the volcanic centres. During this study the geographic distribution of many andesitic and rhyolitic tephra layers have been significantly expanded into a district not previously studied in detail. Andesitic tephras identified include members of the Tufa Trig, Ngauruhoe, Papakai, Mangamate and Bullott Formations. Rhyolitic tephras found, but not previously recorded in Hawke's Bay sequences, include Rerewhakaaitu and Rangitawa Tephras and four previously unidentified rhyolitic tephras termed A, B, C and D within Loess 4 and Loess 5. Major cycles of landscape stability/instability are associated with Quaternary climate changes. During glacial and stadial times intense physical weathering prevailed within the ranges resulting in the transfer of material (aggradation products) through the fluvial and aeolian systems to the downlands and coastal plains. Interglacial and interstadial times were marked by a predominance of chemical weathering (paleosols) and river degradation. The net result was landsurface stabilisation before the next episode of instability. Loess-paleosol layers recognised in Hawke's Bay are correlated to the Rangitikei River Valley sequences. Unlike the Rangitikei sequences, where the best loess-paleosol record overlies terraces, those in Hawke's Bay are found on footslopes. Pre- and early-Ohakean loessial sequences overlying aggradational terraces are absent. Consequently, studies were focussed on colluvial foot- and toe-slopes (depositional sites) within the inland basins and hill-country land systems. Coverbeds from these slope positions have a fuller record and are more useful for stratigraphic studies. Earthquakes, fires (both natural and man-induced), periodic cyclonic storms and ignimbrite sheets punctuate and complicate the climatically induced Quaternary cycles. The record for these non-climatic variables is often local and may mask or even destroy the imprint of older, more poorly preserved climatically-induced Pleistocene stability and instability episodes. Field, morphological, mineralogical and chemical properties of loess and tephra layers were undertaken at four reference sections. These sections are arranged in a west (foothills of the ranges) to east (coast) transect reflecting differences in climate (1800-900mm rainfall/annum, lower rainfalls in the east), soil types (Pumice, Allophanic, Brown and Pallic Soils) and distance from volcanic source areas. The most distant site lies over 100km east of Lake Taupo. Three aggradational terraces associated with the last stadial (Ohakean) are commonly found along Hawke's Bay rivers. Ohakean terraces along the Mohaka River have tread ages of c. 16-14 ka, 14-11 ka and 11-10 ka, respectively. Field and laboratory characterisation of duripan horizons within Pallic Soils were undertaken to elucidate the nature and origin of the cementing medium. Soil chemistry and mineralogy show the cement to be highly siliceous and most likely derived from the weathering products of volcanic ash.Item Unemployment : its meaning and impact in contemporary society : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Psychology at Massey University(Massey University, 1999) Cullen, Andrea Marjorie; Cullen, Andrea MarjorieUnemployment is a continuing concern within Western society that has been linked to material deprivation, social isolation, restricted agency, lowered future aspirations, and a range of negative health consequences. This thesis investigated unemployment in the Hawke's Bay region. The objective was to gain an understanding of the impact of unemployment and its meaning to a sample of employed and unemployed respondents. In conducting this investigation it was important to set the historical and social context, because the meaning of unemployment, strategies for addressing it, and its impact are historically variable across different periods in New Zealand's history. Official definitions, public policies, and public conceptualisations of unemployment from the 1840s to the 1990s were examined, as a means of backgrounding this thesis. Two main frameworks for conceptualising and addressing unemployment were identified. The first relates to liberal ideologies about the free market, including the principle of less eligibility. The second reflects socialist ideologies about the need for state intervention to assist those who are unable to look after themselves. In further establishing the context for this thesis, a review of psychological research into unemployment from the 1930s to the present day revealed that the primary focus has been on its impact. It is argued that the impact of unemployment and the ways it is coped with vary according to factors such as people's perceptions of their situation. Therefore, there is a need for research into both the impact and meaning of unemployment. This thesis set out to contribute to the existing psychological literature by providing further evidence of the impact of unemployment and complementing this evidence with an analysis of the meaning of unemployment. A combination of both quantitative and qualitative techniques were utilised as part of a multimethod research design, which was grounded in two main studies. Study One involved a quantitative survey of 177 employed and unemployed participants on various psychological dimensions, including affective connotation (meaning), anxiety, relative deprivation, perceived social conflict, and values. This study had two main objectives: to provide an understanding of the psychological meaning of employment status in employed and unemployed groups; and to investigate whether interrelationships existed between employment status and various psychological dimensions. Overall, both employed and unemployed groups displayed similar patterns of response. These groups expressed values and interpreted target concepts relating to a person's employment status in a comparable manner. This may be owing to either a shift in public perceptions of the unemployed, where they are now seen in a more favourable light, or a self-report bias. However, there were some key differences between employed and unemployed participants' responses. The unemployed group reported significantly higher levels of relative deprivation, perceived social conflict, and anxiety. Unemployed participants' viewed themselves as being less competent and skilled, and reported living in more adverse circumstances than employed participants. Key psychological dimensions from Study One, such as the meaning of unemployment, relative deprivation, and perceived social conflict, along with additional dimensions were then investigated in a qualitative study. Study Two explored the social meaning systems unemployed people drew on to make sense of their situation and to explain the ways they live with unemployment. Twenty-six unemployed people took part in semi-structured individual interviews. Of this group, 21 also took part in one of three focus group discussions. This study focused on the experiences of the unemployed and the ways they made sense of the consequences of unemployment. Even though the findings were presented under two main categories, meaning and impact, unemployment was assigned meaning in terms of its impact as an unhealthy state. The unemployed's accounts provided complex and insightful explanations of the causes and consequences of unemployment. Participants generally resisted being labelled with negative stereotypes that stigmatise the unemployed as inactive dole bludgers. However, there was a tendency to draw on such stereotypes to stigmatise others and justify one's own legitimacy as a proactive member of society. Participants drew on a mix of individual and communal assumptions to make sense of unemployment, its consequences, and their situation in life. A prominent theme was financial hardship and the life struggles associated with life on the dole. Participants provided explanations of the ways they asserted themselves in the face of social stigma and persistent negative societal perceptions. In doing so they emphasised the ways in which unemployment restricts people's agency and can lead to health problems and social conflict. These two studies revealed how unemployment is predominantly an alienating and socially isolating experience. Common social belief systems within society still stigmatise the unemployed as lazy dole bludgers. This thesis supports calls for considering both material and psychosocial factors when exploring the consequences of unemployment and developing adequate responses. In light of the fact that there are no signs of a significant reduction in the level of unemployment, this thesis provides a timely reminder that social phenomena such as unemployment have very real consequences on people's lives. Emphasis needs to be placed on unemployment as both a social and an individual phenomenon as a means of reducing tendencies towards victim-blaming.Item Investigations on growth and P uptake characteristics of maize and sweet corn as influenced by soil P status : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Ph. D.) (Plant & soil science), Institute of Natural Resources, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand(Massey University, 2005) Aslam, TehseenDespite being different cultivars of the same plant species (Zea mays L.), maize and sweet corn have contrasting P fertiliser recommendations in New Zealand, that are reflected in different target Olsen P values of 10-15 mg P/kg soil for optimum maize growth and 26-35 mg P/kg soil for optimum sweet corn growth. Three key hypotheses were developed in this study to explain why these differences may exist: i) maize and sweet corn differ in their responsiveness to P fertiliser i.e. maize is more internally P efficient and requires less P than sweet corn to grow, ii) both cultivars differ in external P efficiency i.e. their ability to take P up from soil iii) both cultivars differ in external P efficiency because they have different root system structure. Two field experiments evaluated the growth and yield responses of maize and sweet to different rates of P fertiliser application. The first experiment was conducted in Hawke's Bay (2001-02) and second in the Manawatu (2002-03) with P application rates of 0, 100 and 200 kg P/ha in the Hawke's Bay and 0, 15 and 70 kg P/ha in the Manawatu. Both experiments were conducted on soils of low available P status. The Olsen P test values of 13 mg P/kg soil in the Hawke's Bay and 11 mg P/kg soil in the Manawatu were far below the recommended values for sweet corn (25-35 mg P/kg soil). In both experiments and across all P treatments maize produced significantly higher dry matter yields than sweet corn during all sampling stages. In the Hawke's Bay experiment at 100 days after sowing (DAS), the maize (87719 plants/ha, 20.9 t/ha) produced 43% more dry matter than sweet corn (71124 plants/ha, 14.6 t/ha), whereas, in the Manawatu experiment (140 DAS), maize (71124 plants/ha, 15.2 t/ha) had a 39% higher dry matter yield than sweet corn (71124 plants/ha, 10.9 t/ha). In both the field experiments, the sweet corn fresh cob yield of 27 and 28 t/ha in the Hawke's Bay and the Manawatu regions and maize grain yields of 16 and 10 t/ha, respectively, were within the range of the reported commercial yields for each region. In both experiments, the P fertiliser application raised the soil P status (Olsen P test values) but caused no significant increases in either maize or sweet corn yields (total dry matter, sweet corn fresh cob or maize grain). Commercially viable yields of both cultivars were able to be achieved without P fertiliser application with Olsen P soil test in the range of 10-15 mg P/kg soil. Sweet corn reached harvestable maturity at 115 DAS in the Hawke's Bay and 140 DAS in the Manawatu experiments. By this time maize had produced 4-6 t/ha more total dry matter yield than sweet corn, yet maize and sweet corn had achieved similar total P uptake (32-37 kg P/ha at 100 DAS in the Hawke's Bay and 18-19 kg P/ha at 140 DAS in the Manawatu). At silking (after 75 DAS in the Hawke's Bay and approximately 110 DAS in the Manawatu), both cultivar's total leaf P concentrations (0.21-0.25%) were within the sufficiency range values for maize crops in New Zealand (0.18-0.33 %). Maize, however was more internally P efficient growing more dry matter per unit P taken up, which was more noticeable in the drier season. Fertiliser P application increased P uptake with both cultivars under moist conditions in the Hawke's Bay experiment (2001-02). However, the dry conditions in the Manawatu (2002-03) limited P uptake as well as restricted dry matter yields with both cultivars. Further, there were no significant differences between maize and sweet corn P uptake efficiency (kg P/kg root) despite significant differences in the root system structure (biomass) for both cultivars at all stages, which lead to different temporal patterns of P uptake. The lack of maize yield response to fertiliser P in both field experiments is consistent with the New Zealand recommendations for growing a maize grain crop (because soil Olsen P was in the range of 10-15 mg P/kg). However, the lack of sweet corn yield response in both field experiments does not support the New Zealand recommendations for growing sweet corn (which assume optimal Olsen P values are 26-35 mg P/kg).