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Item Household labour allocation on small dairy farms in eastern Java, Indonesia : implications for gender roles : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Applied Science in Rural Development at Massey University(Massey University, 1999) Utami, Hari DwiThe study was carried out in Andonosari village, East Java, Indonesia to investigate the household labour pattern of small-scale dairy farmers. The objectives were to: (a) investigate the pattern of the household labour allocation; (b) examine the earning contribution of dairy fanning to the total of household income; and (c) quantify the role of gender in dairy farming activities. Time use patterns for household labour were computed as the time spent on work (dairy farming and non-dairy farming, including on- and off-farm activities). Interviews were conducted separately with the husband, wife, and family members aged 15-64 years for 50 households. Households were classified into three strata based on the number of dairy cattle farmed: strata 1 (with fewer than 3 animal units (AUs)), n=16; strata 2 (with 3 to 5 AUs, n=18); and strata 3 (with more than 5 AUs, n=16). Descriptive, univariate, bivariate and multivariate analyses were performed using SAS package. Results showed that household labour for income generating activities was allocated more to dairy farming compared to the farm and non-farm work. Females allocated one third of total time to income generating activities, with most of the time devoted to dairy farming activities, while males tended to allocate more time to non-dairy farming activities. The household labour requirement in dairy farming per animal unit decreased as herd size increased, thereby allowing more time for non-dairy activities. Female participation was most evident in feed preparation and feeding, whereas the predominant male activity was forage collection for the dairy cattle. The size of the landholding had no impact on household labour allocation to dairy farming activities. An increase in household income and dependency ratio had a minor impact on household labour requirement in dairy farming. Non-dairy farming activities contributed about two-thirds to household income, the majority from apple farming. The income of household labour per animal unit tended to decrease with an increase in herd size. Variable costs accounted for 74% of the total expenditure in dairy farming, with majority purchases being concentrates. Fixed costs were 26% of total costs, and the major item was depreciation (8%). It is suggested that farmers, including both men and women, should be trained to be more efficient in allocating household labour to dairy farming activities, and in managing the feeding of dairy cattle to achieve high productivity and income. There is substantial scope to increase herd size and increase labour efficiency in dairy farming. Key words : Household labour, gender, dairy farming, non-dairy farming. Title : "Household Labour Allocation on Small dairy Farms in Eastern Java, Indonesia: Implication for Gender Roles." Author : Hari Dwi Utami Degree : Master of Applied Science (Rural Development)Item Household decision-making in rural Nepal : a study of the effects of gender roles and ethnicity : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Applied Science in Rural Development at Massey University(Massey University, 1999) Devkota, DurgaGender disparity in household decision-making is common in developing countries. Ethnicity, culture and geographical location also influence decision-making processes in rural communities. Household decision-making processes in central rural Nepal were examined with a primary focus on gender roles and involvement in the context of three distinct ethnic communities--Brahmin/Chhetri, Gurung and Tharu. Three Village Development Committees (VDCs) of the Chitwan district of Nepal were purposively selected for the study. A combination of participatory rural appraisal (n=6), gender analysis (n=6), key informant interviews (n=14) and household socio-economic surveys (n=123) was used to gather information and data for the study. At the household level, men and women were interviewed separately. The results indicated that both men and women consistently carried out certain crop production activities. Other activities were either male or female dominated, but some activities were insensitive to gender and ethnicity. Ethnic variation impacted on gender roles and involvement of household members. For example, both males and females from the Brahmin/Chhetri and Gurung, and all family members from the Tharu, were involved in manure application to farmland. Fertiliser application was carried out by Brahmin/Chhetri and Tharu men. but jointly by the Gurungs. Crop harvesting was mostly completed by all household members, but with a low level of participation by men, and a high level of participation by women for all ethnic groups. Males dominated crop marketing in the Brahmin/Chhetri and Gurung communities, but this was jointly shared by the Tharus. Livestock-related work was primarily within the domain of women, but variation existed in gender roles across the ethnic groups. For example, Brahmin/Chhetri and Gurung men were less involved in grazing and fodder collection, but all members of Tharu households were jointly involved. Women were more involved than men in household management in all three ethnic groups, with the highest level of participation amongst the Tharu women. Decisions were reached by household members through general discussion. In some cases, however, such as in the marketing of large ruminants, the decision was made solely by the men. Household decision-making also depended on the level and source of income. Within the higher income Brahmin/Chhetri households decisions were largely made independently by males; for the lower income Gurung and the Tharu households joint decision-making was more common. Thus, the underlying male dominance in these communities tended to be related to income level. In relatively affluent households, women were largely restricted to household chores and were less involved in decision-making processes. With respect to crop income. the Gurung women exercised control, whereas the Brahmin/Chhetri males, and both men and women for the Tharus, had a dominant influence over such income. For all ethnic groups, men overwhelmingly dominated the access to agricultural and veterinary services, community activities, and off-farm employment opportunities. Rural and agricultural development activities in Nepal were shown not to be gender or ethnically neutral. However, the extent of this varies by activity. Thus, differences in gender and ethnic roles need to be specifically accounted for in rural policy formulation and planning. A pre-project analysis of gender and ethnicity involvement is recommended to provide better local knowledge of these factors before designing and implementing any project or developmental work. Keywords. Household decision-making. gender roles, ethnicity, gender analysis, participatory rural appraisal, Nepal, rural development