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    Increasing liquid fuel self-sufficiency in Indonesia through utilization of marginal land and appropriate technology for biofuel production : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Energy Management, Massey University, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2019) Lamria, Maslan
    This study proposed a strategy for increasing self-sufficiency of liquid fuel in Indonesia. The novel approach not previously undertaken was to integrate the utilization of marginal land with innovative technology for drop-in biofuel (DBF) production. The strategy involves interdependent relationships, so a systems dynamics modelling approach was applied. The assessments generally cover the national scope, but also specifically used Sumba Island as a case study around the marginal land issue. From a number of potential energy crops considered for growing on Sumba Island, Pongamia pinnata was selected. Metal soap decarboxylation was chosen as the preferable conversion technology for this oil crop, even though it has not yet reached full commersialisation. A simulation framework was developed to explain the intrinsic interrelationship between elements. These comprised the preparation of feedstock from marginal land, preparation of more appropriate conversion technology, a liquid biofuel supply system, and liquid fuel import demands. A delay in any of the elements causes a delay in DBF uptake, and thus time becomes a crucial factor. Considering the time factor, this study assessed the political dimension of sustainability, which is lacking in other bioenergy studies. A model, Assessment Tool of Biofuel Strategy through Utilization of Marginal Land and Innovation in Conversion Technology (ABMIC) was developed to test the strategy outcomes in some priority sustainability indicators. The model consists of ten sub-models containing two feedback loops invented in this study: a) between the “sense of urgency for action by the President” (SU) and liquid biofuel supply and demand; and b) between the conventional biofuel production from palm oil and the DBF production. The ABMIC model was tested and validated for structural validity, behaviour validity, and model usefulness. The results from scenario-based simulations confirmed that a systems dynamics approach was suitable for assessing the strategy. It supported the hypothesis that a political element, namely SU level, critically affects the success in implementing a liquid biofuel strategy through marginal land use and conversion technology innovation to increase liquid fuel self-sufficiency, which in turn influences the political element itself. An increase in SU level leads to a significant increase in liquid fuel self-sufficiency, foreign exchange saving, gross regional domestic product, and CO2 emissions reduction. SU should be sustained by maximizing future vision intervention. With modifications, the SU structure could be applied in non-biofuel sectors. Finally, this study outlines opportunities for further research to improve the model including through disaggregation, endogenizing variables, building functions of effects between variables, improving the variable quantifications, and further exploration of the variables.
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    Effects of disturbance and nutrient regimes on freshwater invertebrate community structure : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Ecology at Massey University, Manawatū, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2018) Taylor, Joanna Marie
    Freshwater ecosystems globally are under threat from anthropogenically driven impacts including water abstraction for drinking and agriculture, exotic species invasion, eutrophication, channelization and destruction or modification of habitat. In New Zealand, eutrophication from nutrient enrichment is one of the most pervasive and detrimental impacts. High nutrient levels in waterways is detrimental not only to the species that inhabit them, but can also affect drinking and irrigation water for humans and result in loss of recreational and aesthetic values. Excess nitrogen and phosphorus can cause large amounts of periphyton to grow which in turn can impact water quality and the community composition of stream macroinvertebrates. Macroinvertebrate communities are also strongly affected by floods. More or less frequent flooding can cause changes in composition of stream invertebrate communities. Streams are usually affected by multiple stressors but the effect of those stressors are often considered in isolation for management. As macroinvertebrates are often used as indicators of ecosystem health, it is important to assess how different stressors interact and how these impacts those communities. In this study, macroinvertebrate communities in four Taranaki streams were sampled to assess the interactive effects of nutrient enrichment and flood regime. Nutrient enrichment resulted in invertebrate communities changing markedly between upstream and downstream sites. All four streams had a similar composition at the upstream sites whereas downstream sites in most streams were very different. In two of the streams with lower disturbance regimes, nutrients were the most important driver of invertebrate community composition. In the two streams with a higher disturbance regime, the invertebrate communities were more similar between upstream and downstream sites indicating that flooding was overriding the effects of nutrient enrichment as the most important driver of community composition.
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    The social & economic implications of alternative land uses involving pastoral farming and forestry in Northland : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Philosophy in Natural Resource and Environmental Economics at Massey University
    (Massey University, 1987) Smith, David Hardie
    This thesis is a scenario study which examines the social and economic impacts of different types of forestry being established in an area of pastoral farmland in Northland, New Zealand. Detailed production, income, expenditure, employment and demographic data was collected from 57 of the 59 farms in the study area. This included expenditure direction data. Those businesses and schools which supported, and were in turn supported by, the study area farms were interviewed to find out the importance of these farms to their continued operation. This pastoral farming scenario is then compared with four forestry scenarios - two conventional forestry scenarios, plus a woodlot and finally an agroforestry scenario. In the first conventional forestry scenario all the study area farms (15,000 hectares) are planted in exotics and in the second about 3,000 hectares are planted. With the two farm forestry scenarios about 1,000 hectares are planted. In the first conventional forestry scenario forestry replaces pastoral farming, while in the second and the farm forestry scenarios pastoral farming and forestry are integrated. Variable results resulted from the comparison, with expenditure comparisons very sensitive to the time harvesting commences, the amount cut and the time span of the scenarios. (Thirty-five years.) These comparisons were also sensitive to the locality in which farming and forestry expenditure were being compared. Forestry expenditure would be markedly higher than farming expenditure once harvesting commenced. But farming has higher backward linkage multipliers and unless forestry processing plants are established, the conventional forestry developments in the scenarios imply a relative decline in regional incomes and employment. If forestry processing plants are established, an increase in regional incomes and employment is implied. Woodlot and agroforestry generally imply an increase in expenditure and employment without the drop in agricultural spending associated with conventional forestry activities on former pastoral farmland. Conventional forestry would result in disruption to the existing social structure. It may result in a long term population decline, but it is likely many ex-farm houses would be re-occupied. Woodlot and agroforestry would strengthen the existing social and economic structure. It is concluded that the Northland United Council's interest and concern about the afforestation of pastoral farmland is justified. However, the rural decline, the corporatisation of government departments, plus the impacts of forestry harvesting and wood processing are considered to be of more importance in the establishment of regional planning priorities.
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    The geography of small rural farmlets : a case study of the Hawkes Bay rural 'B' zone : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment for the degree of Master in Arts in Geography at Massey University
    (Massey University, 1978) Seator, Murray John
    A major problem confronting geographers and town planners today, is the outward expansion of urban areas onto good agricultural land. One factor emerging from the impact of urban expansion on rural land, is the development of a number of small size farmlets on the rural/urban interface. Most of the available literature on this topic is American and is based to some extent on von Thunen 'rings' of land-use around an urban area. This study is based in the Hawkes Bay Rural 'B' Zone - an area surrounding the expanding urban centres of Napier and Hastings and refers to small rural farmlets between 0.8 and 10.0 hectares in area. It was found that 1984 small rural farmlets exist on the 34 400 hectare study area. From this a 20 percent random sample amounting to 392 farmlets was made and a questionnaire relating to the geography of these farmlets drawn up and sent to the sample. The study looked at the social geography of the farmlets, their occupiers, as well as at land-use activities and patterns. It was found that the smaller size properties were located nearer to the urban areas than their larger counter-parts and that the majority of farmlets are located around the periphery of the urban areas. Analysis showed that those living on the farmlets enjoy the same day-to-day services and facilities of their urban counterparts but also enjoy the benefits associated with living in a rural environment even though they do incur higher transport costs than those living in urban areas. Only 20 per cent of those living on their farmlets earned their living working their farmlets full-time. The majority of the others had occupations unrelated to their farmlets, in the urban centres and were classified as part-time farmers. Even so, it was noted that a wide variety of land-uses was undertaken on the farmlets. A table of intensity of land use was drawn up. From this it was found that although the intensity of use was greater than other areas studied in New Zealand, (Manawatu - Chiu, 1975 and Taupo - Crawford, 1977) there was still a reduction in intensity for the rural 'B' zone. Intensity of use was found to be related to the size of farmlet and the occupation of the farmlet owner. From this a pattern of land-use was noted. Finally it was concluded that a new phenomenon in land ownership in the Hawkes Bay is occuring; one of 'rural-urbanization'.
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    Effects of land use and point source discharges on macroinvertebrate and periphyton communities of the Taranaki ring plain : a thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science at Massey University
    (Massey University, 2000) Wells, A.G.
    Macroinvertebrate and periphyton communities were sampled from February 1998 to May 1998 in 83 stream and river sites throughout the Taranaki Ring Plain, New Zealand. Generally as streams descend the mountain, the catchment moves along a continuum ranging from pristine headwater streams with a high proportion of catchment in native forest, through to lowland streams with a high proportion of pasture catchment, draining intensive agricultural and industrial practices which put pressure on water resources. Ordination of sites indicated that the environmental continuum on the Ring Plain corresponds to a gradient of taxa along Axis 1 from clean water mayfly, caddisfly and stonefly taxa (i.e., Deleatidium spp., Coloburiscus) that prefer headwater streams, through to nutrient tolerant taxa (i.e. Oxyethira, Nemertea, Potomoprygus) that prefer lowland streams. This was emphasised by the positive correlation of Axis 1 with altitude and percent native forest and negative correlation with conductivity, chlorophyll a, temperature and BOD (Biological Oxygen Demand). A decline in invertebrate richness (number of taxa, Margarlef's index), and an increase in periphyton richness (number of taxa) and biomass (chlorophyll a) also occurred with distance downstream on the Ring Plain. Data collected in my study were compared to earlier studies (Taranaki Catchment Commission 1982,1984; Stark 1982; Hirsch 1958) to examine longer term temporal changes in macroinvertebrate communities. Significant differences in MCI and the SQMCI were found between my study and studies in the 1980's and 1958, as well as differences in percent EPT and the number of taxa between my study and 1980's studies. The decline in biotic indices in my study was also accompanied by a decrease in the abundance of mayfly and sensitive caddisfly taxa (i.e., Deleatidium spp., Coloburiscus) and an increase in the abundance of Diptera and the more tolerant caddisfly taxa (i.e. Oxyethira, Tanytarsini), since 1980's studies. Although invertebrate communities in my study that used to be below dairy factories and septic tank discharges were similar to the invertebrate communities in the 1980's studies, there was a general improvement since the 1958 study. This recovery was reflected in the smaller negative differences in MCI values between sites directly upstream and downstream of discharge points within my study compared to the 1958 study. Temporal changes in water quality were mostly attributed to the intensification of agricultural practices, point source discharges from dairy factories and industry, changes in the flow regime and sand movement.
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    Cockies and blockies : cultural constructs in the analysis of rural change : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Social Anthropology
    (Massey University, 2004) Smith, Roger Thomas Ward
    THIS STUDY of rural change takes an ethnographic approach to track the "downstream" social effects of the 1984 restructuring of the agricultural industry during the past two decades in a small Lower Northland farming district. It argues that the reforms marked the beginning of a period of change and uncertainty in farming that has resulted in many of the farmers of the district subdividing and selling land to clear debt or realise capital. Sale of smallholdings has attracted urban migrants from nearby Auckland, driving up land prices to the point where farm children can no longer afford to succeed to the family farm. At the same time, conflicting culturally-based understandings of rurality by farmers and smallholders manifests in behaviours that produce tension between the two groups. Each values the rural environment for different reasons and in different ways. The result is that farmers view smallholders as a challenge to their still-dominant culture. A minority of farmers welcome the diversity smallholders bring to the district.