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    The relationship between loneliness and quality of life in informal dementia caregivers : a thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Doctor of Clinical Psychology at Massey University, Auckland, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2024) Jenkins, Brieonie
    Background Informal caregivers are an essential part of dementia support in New Zealand. The number of people affected by dementia is increasing. Previous studies have indicated that informal caregivers are at risk of poor mental and physical health outcomes, due to the stressors in the caregiving role. These stressors have been identified as risk factors for loneliness. Research in other populations highlights strong links between loneliness and poor health outcomes. This research explored the relationship between primary caregiving stressors, loneliness, isolation and quality of life (QOL) within the framework of the Stress Process Model. Methods This research investigated hypothesised factors leading to loneliness and quality of life in a New Zealand sample of informal dementia caregivers (n= 134). It used a cross-sectional survey design and structured questionnaire to explore background and context factors (care duration, hours per week caregiving, relationship length and help hours per week), primary stressors (Activities of Daily Living dependency, frequency of challenging behaviour, caregiver reaction and relational deprivation), loneliness, isolation, and quality of life. Descriptive analysis, correlational analysis, confirmatory factor analysis and path analysis were used to examine the relationships between variables and conduct mediation analyses. Results The findings indicated that QOL was moderate, with the average rating between ‘neither good nor poor’ and ‘good’. The psychological domain was significantly lower than all other domains. Within the sample there was a high prevalence of loneliness (88%) and lower prevalence of isolation (21%). Overall QOL and QOL domains were significantly associated with total loneliness. Among the primary stressors, only the frequency of challenging behaviour correlated to loneliness. Both the frequency of challenging behaviour and caregiver reaction had significant correlations to QOL. Total loneliness partially mediated the relationship between primary stressors and QOL. Social loneliness was also found to partially mediate this relationship while emotional loneliness did not. Conclusions The findings show that there was a high prevalence of loneliness in the sample. They also show that primary caregiving stressors are associated with loneliness and that loneliness is associated with quality of life. This research highlights the importance of addressing loneliness in this population, suggests targeted loneliness interventions and recommends caregivers be screened for loneliness to increase access to appropriate support.
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    The life course effects of socioeconomic status on later life loneliness: The role of gender and ethnicity
    (Elsevier Inc., 2024-09-07) Szabó Á; Stephens C; Breheny M
    Precursors of loneliness include individual risk factors and experiences of social exclusion. Using the New Zealand Health Work and Retirement Life Course History Study, we investigated the impact of unequal access to material resources across the life course (from age 10 to present) on late life emotional and social loneliness and the moderating effects of gender and Māori ethnicity (indigenous population of Aotearoa/New Zealand) in 613 adults aged 65 to 81 years. Childhood and adult life socioeconomic status (SES) negatively predicted late life emotional and social loneliness, but their effects disappeared after controlling for late life SES, suggesting a mediation effect. Education was also a significant predictor; however, it exerted different effects on social (positive) and emotional (negative) loneliness. Education's effect was moderated by gender, indicating a protective effect for emotional and an exacerbating effect for social loneliness in men. These findings suggest that lifelong exclusion from material resources is a risk factor for late life loneliness.
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    Older People’s Neighborhood Perceptions Are Related to Social and Emotional Loneliness and Mediated by Social Network Type
    (Oxford University Press, 2022-10-19) Stephens C; Phillips H
    Background and Objectives Loneliness among older people is a public health issue; however, there is very weak support for the efficacy of individually focused interventions. A public health model, which includes the environmental influence on the formation of social networks and protection from loneliness, and theoretical approaches differentiating between social and emotional loneliness, suggest the importance of neighborhoods in preventing loneliness. This approach was used to test the influence of neighborhood factors on loneliness and the mediating role of social networks. Research Design and Methods A questionnaire survey of 917 people aged 60–100 years was conducted in one region of Aotearoa/New Zealand to assess loneliness, social network types, social participation, marital status, gender, health, and four aspects of neighborhood perceptions. Results Social and emotional loneliness scores were regressed on predicted demographic and social variables, followed by perceptions of Housing Satisfaction, Neighborhood Accessibility, Neighborhood Security, and Neighborhood Social Cohesion. Neighborhood variables added significant explanation of variance in both social and emotional loneliness. Mediation tests using PROCESS showed that the effects of all neighborhood variables were mediated by Private-Restricted or Locally Integrated Network types on Social Loneliness only. Discussion and Implications These findings highlight the importance of neighborhood factors in relation to feelings of loneliness and the recognition of social network types as mediators of these relationships for social loneliness. The aspects of neighborhoods that prevent loneliness provide directions for planners and prevention programs. Interventions to prevent social loneliness can usefully and practicably focus on the housing and neighborhood environment.
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    Social Isolation and Loneliness during COVID-19 Lockdown: Associations with Depressive Symptoms in the German Old-Age Population
    (MDPI (Basel, Switzerland), 2021-04-01) Müller F; Röhr S; Reininghaus U; Riedel-Heller SG
    Lockdowns during the COVID-19 pandemic increase the risk of social isolation and loneliness, which may affect mental wellbeing. Therefore, we aimed to investigate associations between social isolation and loneliness with depressive symptoms in the German old-age population during the first COVID-19 lockdown. A representative sample of randomly selected individuals at least 65 years old (n = 1005) participated in a computer-assisted standardized telephone interview in April 2020. Sociodemographic data, aspects of the personal life situation, attitudes towards COVID-19 and standardized screening measures on loneliness (UCLA 3-item loneliness scale), depression (Brief Symptom Inventory/BSI-18), and resilience (Brief Resilience Scale/BRS) were assessed. Associations were inspected using multivariate regression models. Being lonely, but not isolated (β = 0.276; p < 0.001) and being both isolated and lonely (β = 0.136; p < 0.001) were associated with higher depressive symptoms. Being isolated, but not lonely was not associated with depressive symptoms. Thus, the subjective emotional evaluation, i.e., feeling lonely, of the social situation during lockdown seems more relevant than the objective state, i.e., being isolated. Normal (β = −0.203; p < 0.001) and high resilience (β = −0.308; p < 0.001) were associated with lower depressive symptoms across groups. Therefore, strengthening coping skills may be a support strategy during lockdowns, especially for lonely older individuals.
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    The past in the present : a mixed methods evaluation of a group intervention for loneliness and well-being among older people : a dissertation presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Clinical Psychology, Massey University, Wellington, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2011) Miclette, Isabelle
    Recent research has shown loneliness in old age to be a major risk factor for a variety of deleterious psychological and physiological outcomes, including cognitive decline, progression of Alzheimer‟s disease, increased blood pressure, depression, and mortality. However, practical interventions which meet reasonable standards in terms of feasibility and outcome are limited. The main purpose of this study was to develop and evaluate the usefulness of a brief instrumental reminiscence intervention aimed at preventing and alleviating loneliness to increase the well-being of older people. A mixed methods design allowed the examination of both the impact and process of the intervention, as experienced by four groups of older people living in a retirement facility in New Zealand (N = 17; mean age = 84 years). Loneliness and well-being were assessed over five measurement points with the short form of the Social and Emotional Loneliness Scale for Adults, and Affectometer 2, respectively. Repeated measures analysis of variance, content analysis, and thematic analysis were employed to investigate the participants‟ experience of the intervention. Results showed a high level of satisfaction with the intervention, and provided preliminary evidence for its usefulness over a time period of two months. Loneliness was conceptualised by participants as a normal challenge of life which can be actively addressed by connecting with others in meaningful ways. Learning for participants was located primarily in their experience of the intervention, namely from relationships developed within the groups themselves. This study offers support for the theory on social and emotional loneliness, substantiates the acceptability and usefulness of practical group interventions to enhance well-being in later life, and highlights the importance of tailoring interventions to the needs and experiences of older people. In light of the emphasis study participants placed on group therapeutic factors as their primary source of learning about coping with loneliness, future interventions could focus on the role of feedback and social comparison in promoting connectedness amongst older people.
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    The effects of short-term repeated work-related separations on pilots, cabin crew, and their partners : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Psychology at Massey University
    (Massey University, 1996) Ward, Rachel Helen; Ward, Rachel Helen
    Separations from a spouse or intimate partner due to work are becoming increasingly common in industrialised societies. Previous research has focused on military and long-term work-related separations, mainly examining the reactions of the partners at home. The partners at home have been almost exclusively female and have been in heterosexual relationships. In addition to the gender bias and the focus on the partners at home, there are other limitations to the findings of previous studies. These limitations include the absence of stated hypotheses or theories and the lack of a control group. Results from previous studies on both long-term and short-term work-related separations indicate that the separations have negative effects on both the individuals' health and on their marriages or intimate relationships. The present research examined in the aviation industry the relationship between short-term work-related separations and aspects of physical and mental health. The primary aims of the present study included studying female and male travelling partners (international crew) and partners at home (partners of international crew) who were in heterosexual and same-gender relationships. In addition, both qualitative and quantitative research methods were utilised, together with a control group of national flight crew and their partners who were not considered to be separated due to their work. The present research consisted of three studies; interviews of international crew which were qualitatively examined (Part 1); and two studies (the crew study and the partner study) using a survey which collected both quantitative and qualitative data (Part 2). In the first part of the research, most international crew reported that work-related separations had some adverse effects on themselves individually and on their relationships. In particular, all crew reported that loneliness was a key factor which they attributed to the separations. From this finding of the widespread reporting of loneliness, a model of the moderating process of loneliness on the relationship between separation and physical and mental health was proposed. This theory was tested in the second part of the research using hierarchical multiple regressions. However, results from the second part of the research failed to support the proposed moderating role of loneliness for either crew or their partners. Although no interaction effect was discovered, loneliness was a significant predictor of all six physical and mental health outcome variables for crew, and three of the outcome variables for partners. In addition, loneliness was claimed to be the most difficult problem of the work-related separations for both international crew and their partners in the qualitative section of the surveys. By comparing results from international crew and international partners with the control groups of national crew and national partners, the present study concluded that claims of the effects of repeated short-term work-related separations have been exaggerated. There were few differences between those who were separated and those who were not, in terms of aspects of physical and mental health. Those crew who were separated reported higher levels of psychological distress and higher levels of physical health symptoms than crew who were not separated. Partners who were separated were more likely to report lower levels of job satisfaction than partners who were not separated. When crew and partners were compared, international crew reported higher levels of psychological distress, physical health symptoms, and lower levels of job satisfaction than international partners. In addition, international crew reported higher levels of self-rated health. However, these differences could have been a result of the unique working conditions of flight crew, as the analyses comparing national crew with their partners also found similar differences. The findings of the present study were discussed in terms of the implications for further research, including the need to use a control group. Although few differences were found between those who were separated and those who were not, it was acknowledged that some individuals may be more adversely affected by the separations than others. For these individuals, the effects of work-related separations should not be underestimated because of potential health and safety risks. Implications for organisations and individuals for whom work-related separations are part of their employment were discussed including the need to address the issue of loneliness.