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    Plant-based meat analogues and hybrid meats produced by high-moisture extrusion and high-temperature shear processing : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Food Technology at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand. EMBARGOED until 15 November 2027.
    (Massey University, 2024-11-12) Mao, Boning
    Plant-based meat analogues (PBMAs) are primarily made from plant proteins as the foundational ingredients, which undergo thermomechanical processing (TMP) techniques to mimic the fibrous texture and flavour of meat but face issues such as a lack of fibrous structure, low digestibility and deficiencies in essential amino acids. High-moisture extrusion (HME) is the primary processing technique for preparing fibrous meat analogues. This study developed a novel high-temperature shear processing (HTSP) method for producing uniformly consistent hybrid meat analogues and PBMAs. A systematic comparison was conducted between meat analogues prepared via HME and HTSP, focusing on the impact of these TMP on protein conformational changes at the molecular level. It was found that these two techniques distinctly affect the secondary and tertiary conformations of soy, pea, and rice proteins. This study also found that the hybrid meat analogues demonstrated improved protein digestibility and bioavailability compared to PBMAs.
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    Consumer emotional engagement with plant-based meat alternatives : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Food Technology at Massey University, Manawatū, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2024) Orr, Rebekah Eleanor
    Plant-based meat alternatives (PBMAs) can support consumers in reducing meat consumption without having to drastically change the way they eat. However, consumer uptake of PBMAs is low highlighting the need for a better understanding of the drivers of PBMA acceptance. The research presented in this thesis aimed to do this by leveraging two innovative techniques in sensory consumer research: measuring emotional response and using digital immersive environments (digital-IEs). As no emotion lexicon had been published for plant-based patties (PB-patties) or PBMAs in general before this work, an emotional lexicon specific to comparing meat and PB-patties was created. Taking a unique approach, participants were immersed (using digital-IEs) in two relevant burger-eating scenarios to evoke key emotions associated with plant-based patty (PB-patty) consumption in realistic scenarios. Different age and diet groups were included in the lexicon development process to ensure it was inclusive of the range of emotions that could potentially be experienced by end-users. The lexicon included emotions not found in generic lexicons, highlighting the value of a product-specific lexicon for gaining deeper insights. Many emotions were negatively classified, such as ‘deceived’, ‘disappointed’, and ‘anxious’, while others were positively classified, including ‘amazed’ and ‘hopeful’. The lexicon was applied with meat-eating consumers to emotionally profile a variety of commercially available meat and plant-based patties, alongside measures of liking, sensory attributes, and perceived similarity to a beef patty. Findings revealed that PB-patties closely resembling beef were the most appealing to meat eaters, receiving high liking scores and evoking positive emotional responses, sometimes comparable to those elicited by the beef patty. In contrast, patties that did not mimic meat characteristics were generally disliked and evoked negative emotional responses. These results indicate that PB-patties lacking meat-like characteristics require significant product development to gain acceptance among meat-eating consumers. The lexicon was also applied to investigate the impact of eating scenarios created using digital-IEs, and accompanying foods, on emotional response, as well as liking, towards plant-based meatball alternatives (PB-meatballs). Serving two PB-meatballs with a well-liked sauce significantly increased both liking and positive emotional response. Additionally, consuming PB-meatballs in an appropriate home environment improved liking for one product and enhanced positive emotional responses toward both. These findings emphasised the importance of considering contextual factors in future research on PBMAs to better understand how they would perform in real-life eating situations. This research provided an emotion lexicon that researchers and food manufacturers can apply to better understand consumer emotional responses to PBMAs. It identified sensory attributes driving liking and positive emotional responses such as a strong beef flavour and juicy texture, as well as those that drive disliking and negative emotional responses including a beany flavour and pasty/doughy texture, providing a guide for improved PBMA product development. Furthermore, the research demonstrated that consumer acceptance of PBMAs can be improved when served with other meal components and consumed in a contextually appropriate environment, which has implications for how PBMAs are evaluated in the field. Notably, this research showcased the potential of digital-IEs as a tool for gaining insights into consumer responses in settings that are more representative of ‘real-life’ eating scenarios than traditional sensory testing facilities (i.e. sensory booths).
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    High temperature-shear processing of plant and dairy proteins for the development of structured meat analogues : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Food Technology at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand. EMBARGOED until further notice.
    (Massey University, 2023) Beniwal, Akashdeep Singh
    Structural and techno-functional properties of some plant proteins can be transformed into fibrous structures while undergoing high-temperature shear processing (HTSP). However, plant-based substitutes are generally considered to be nutritionally and sensorially inferior to muscle food. Blending dairy protein with plant protein during the restructuring process could improve the functional and nutritional characteristics of the hybrid blend. This study aims to create nutritionally enhanced hybrid meat analogues (HMAs) from plant and dairy protein combinations using an innovative HTSP technique, and investigate the effect on structural, sensorial and nutritional properties of these combinations. The role of protein–protein interactions responsible for fiber formation in concentrated binary protein mixtures undergoing HTSP was also studied. Results indicated that the temperature range of 120°C–140°C, a processing time of 10 min–30 min and a shear rate of 25%–75% (i.e., 806-2314 RPM) create anisotropic structures in soy protein isolate (SPI) and wheat starch (WS) (at a 90:10 ratio) dispersions. Moisture content, shear rate and processing time significantly affected the textural responses (p < 0.05). Interestingly, in the absence of mixing (shear rate ~ 0), no network was formed in protein mixture, suggesting that combined thermal and shear forces were essential to introduce physicochemical changes in protein dispersions. Consequently, the HTSP of SPI, pea protein concentrate (PPC) and plant–dairy protein combinations (using sodium caseinate [NaCas], calcium caseinate [CaCas], whey protein concentrate [WPC] and milk protein concentrate [MPC]) result in various structural morphologies such as gels, layered gels, layered fibrous or fibrous structures. Further, incorporation of 10 % WS in hybrid protein mixtures undergoing the HTSP, enhanced the fiber formation. Restructured mixtures containing 20% MPC and 10% starches (i.e., wheat starch [WS]) combined with plant proteins (35% soy and 35% pea protein mixtures) generated anisotropic structures with textural attributes very similar to “chicken breast”. Therefore, this combination was considered the best formulation for further experimentation and product testing. The effects of material composition and processing conditions on mechanism of fiber formation in novel meat analogues during HTSP and its impact on texture, macrostructure, protein interactions and protein conformations were analysed. We find that the evolution of fibers depends upon the interrelations between shear work input and processing conditions during HTSP. Processing time, moisture content, shear rate and raw material formulation significantly affect HMA energy input, texture and colour (p < 0.05). Both non-covalent (hydrogen, hydrophobic) and covalent (disulphide) interactions during HTSP were responsible for sample structure. However, processing conditions had an insignificant influence on protein–protein interactions. A significant correlation between processing parameters, texture attributes, protein solubility and secondary protein structures of meat analogues was observed. Therefore, a subtle balance of processing conditions and material properties could achieve a fibrous structure with controllable textural and structural functionality in novel meat analogues. The impact of dairy protein (0%, 10%, 20%, 30% and 40% MPC) integrated with plant proteins on physicochemical, sensory and nutritional properties of HMAs were also investigated. The results showed that plant and dairy protein ratios significantly influence HMAs’ textural properties. Meat analogues with 20% MPC are closest in terms of both textural and microstructural properties to boiled chicken. Hybrid samples with 20% and 40% MPC yield acceptable sensorial scores, although overall palatability decreases with increasing MPC concentration. The tenderness and juiciness scores were higher for the hybrid samples than for the plant-only and commercial samples. Nutritional studies showed that essential amino acid (EAA) content in hybrid mixes was higher than in the plant-only meat analogue, indicating enhanced dietary properties.
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    The development of extruded meat alternatives using Maillard-reacted beef bone hydrolysate and plant proteins : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Food Technology at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2020) Chiang, Jie Hong
    This research thesis aimed to process beef bone extract into a flavoursome protein ingredient to be added to extruded meat analogues to form meat alternatives and study their impact on the structural, textural, and sensory properties of meat alternatives. The thesis consists of three main parts. In the first part, two methods namely enzymatic hydrolysis and Maillard reaction (MR) treatments were evaluated for their suitability of modifying the flavour character of beef bone extract to become flavoursome protein ingredients. The second part studied the effects of soy protein concentrate (SPC) to wheat gluten (WG) ratio as a way of improving the structural and textural properties of current extruded meat analogues. The third part studied the effects of flavoursome protein ingredient (i.e. Maillard-reacted beef bone hydrolysate) with plant proteins on extruded meat alternatives. It also investigated the effects of moisture contents on extruded meat alternatives and their application in sausages. To begin, an experimental study on the effects of enzymatic hydrolysis treatments (i.e. single, simultaneous and sequential) on the physicochemical properties of beef bone extract using Protamex®, bromelain, and Flavourzyme® was conducted. Next, the changes in the physicochemical properties and volatile compounds of beef bone hydrolysates during heat treatment as a result of the MR were investigated. Beef bone hydrolysates were combined with ribose in aqueous solutions and heated at 113°C to produce Maillard reaction products (MRPs). Results showed that Flavourzyme® was the most effective in increasing the proportion of low Mw peptides, reducing viscosity and enhancing the flavour intensity of beef bone extract. Concurrently, the effects of SPC to WG ratio at a constant mass of SPC and WG on the physicochemical properties of extruded meat analogues were studied. Meat analogues containing 30%WG showed the highest degree of texturisation, fibrous structure, hardness and chewiness using instrumental and sensory analysis. For the third part of this research thesis, the effects of flavoursome protein ingredient (i.e. Flavourzyme®-MRP) at different concentrations (0, 10, 20, 30 and 40% wet weight) with plant proteins on extruded meat alternatives were investigated. Meat alternatives containing 20%MRP obtained the highest sensory scores for appearance, meaty aroma, meaty taste, and overall acceptability. Results showed that the addition of MRP with soy protein concentrate and wheat gluten to produce meat alternatives changed the textural, structural, and sensory properties significantly. The effects of moisture content (MC) on the physicochemical properties of extruded meat alternatives made from Flavourzyme®-MRP and plant proteins were studied. Samples were extruded at different dry feed rate of 1.8, 2.2, 2.6 and 3.0 kg/h to obtain MC of 60%MC, 56%MC, 52%MC and 49%MC, respectively. Meat alternatives at 49%MC were the closest in terms of both textural and microstructural properties to reference sample, boiled chicken breast. Results showed that the change in MC as a process parameter played an important role in the formation of fibrous structure in extruded meat alternatives. Lastly, the physicochemical properties of sausages made from extruded meat alternatives at different MC were conducted. Five sausages made from meat alternatives (S49%MC, S52%MC, S56%MC and S60%MC) and chicken breast (SCB) as a reference sample were prepared. Results showed that S49%MC had the highest sensory scores among all sausages made from meat alternatives. However, SCB obtained the highest sensory scores for all attributes except for appearance among all sausages at a 95% confidence level. Overall, the present work demonstrated that a flavoursome protein ingredient (i.e. Flavourzyme®-MRP) from low-value meat by-product (i.e. beef bone extract) can be successfully incorporated into extruded meat analogues to form meat alternatives with high aroma and taste quality while maintaining fibrous structure. However, further work needs to be done to improve the textural and sensory properties of sausages made from extruded meat alternatives.
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    Development of a new meat analogue from soy protein-meat blends : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Food Technology at Massey University, Riddet Institute, Palmerston North, New Zealand. EMBARGOED until 1 March 2027.
    (Massey University, 2019) Mao, Boning
    Meat analogues are plant protein-based products with similar sensory attributes to meat products. These products are increasingly prevalent, because they not only have high protein and less fat content, but they also have a fibrous nature that contributes to meat-like sensory attributes. Currently, meat analogues are mainly produced by high moisture extrusion using vegetable proteins, such as soy proteins and wheat gluten, because of their ability to form meatlike texturised fibre under thermal and mechanical stress conditions. This study focused on the development of a novel meat analogue with a high shear mixer by using soy protein isolate (SPI)–beef trimmings (BT) blends. It was assumed that the nutritional value, texture and flavour of traditional plant-based meat analogues will be improved by the addition of BT. This high shear mixer is a lab-scale mixer equipped with a shear and high pressure-temperature system, and it has potential to be a novel device for the production of food with a meat-like fibrous structure. Compared with high moisture extrusion, this high shear mixer requires less energy for rotation and heating. In addition, there are several factors (e.g., such as particle size, meat type, mixing time and fat content) that affect the texture of products during extrusion cooking.--Shortened abstract
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    Insect proteins : characterisation and development of meat analogues : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Food Technology at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand. EMBARGOED until 1 March 2027.
    (Massey University, 2019) Gadodia, Varun
    Insect proteins are under constant exploration by researchers as a sustainable protein source to fulfil the rising needs of dietary proteins. Commercial insect powders are a rich source of protein having crude protein content up to 70 % on dry weight basis, which is equivalent to plant protein concentrates. In this study, commercially produced cricket powder was characterised for nutritional and functional attributes and further investigated for its ability to produce fibrous meat analogues when blended with plant proteins using a pilot-scale process. The specific objectives of current study were i) To determine nutritional value and functionality of commercial cricket powders; ii) To standardise a formulation using cricket powder and plant proteins blends for a pilot- scale process for producing meat analogues.--Shortened abstract