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Item 'Failed' mothers,‘failed’ womxn: Demarcating normative mothering(Routledge, 2019-12-09) Macleod CI; Feltham-King T; Mavuso JM-JJ; Morison T; Zuffrey, C; Buchanan, FIn this chapter, we show how the boundaries of acceptable mothering are demarcated and regulated through reference to the ‘Other’ (Woollett & Phoenix, 1997). Using examples of ‘womxn’ who refuse motherhood, terminate pregnancies and reproduce when considered to be too young, we outline how womxn who ‘fail’ at normative mothering or who deviate from expected reproductive decisions form the pathologised presence that pre-defines the absent trace of normative mothering and the successful accomplishment of womxnhood (Macleod, 2001). We use the term ‘womxn’ and ‘womxnhood’ to disrupt normative assumptions about gender and sex, here taken to be socially constructed, which write gender and sex onto individuals. In this chapter, the term ‘womxn’ denotes and recognises womxn-identifying persons with the biological capacity to become pregnant, including intersex and transgender individuals. We also use this term to foreground the experiences of womxn of colour, womxn from/living in the global South, trans, queer and intersex womxn, as well as all womxn-identifying persons who have been excluded from dominant constructions of ‘womanhood’ and feminist praxis on the subject (Ashlee, Zamora & Karikari, 2017; Merbruja, 2015).Item "I am actually doing alright" : a grounded theory exploration of how women's online social support use affects maternal identity construction and wellbeing : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Psychology at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand(Massey University, 2019) Swale, Lisa ElizabethIn the maternal transition constructing a mothering identity is challenging as maternal identities are shaped by socially constructed ideologies of “good” motherhood. These idealised constructions are conveyed through women’s social support – in both online and offline spaces – and ultimately influence wellbeing. Online support is growing in prevalence and women are increasingly going online for maternal support. This study explores how online social support use, particularly the Social Networking Site Facebook, influenced New Zealand women’s maternal identity construction and its potential effects on wellbeing. This grounded theory study analysed in-depth semi-structured interviews (n=14) to capture the experiences of New Zealand women who had recently undergone the transition to motherhood. The constant comparison approach was used for analysis. The findings provide insights into these new mothers’ experiences of using online social support in their maternal identity construction. The produced framework enables understanding of how women used online social support to negotiate their maternal identity construction. Women manage this identity by using online social media to: (1) create a “base” of support in gaining information; (2) create a “village” of support for intimate connections; (3) compare their mothering experiences; and (4) mentor other new mothers in re/constructing their maternal identity. The proposed framework explains how online social support access, particularly Facebook, gave women choice in support and enabled opportunities to create mothering communities. The analysis shows how “villages” were used in the negotiation of maternal identity and re/construction of what it means to be a “good” mother within women’s individual contexts. Thus, women learnt to manage their identity construction online in ways that enhanced perceived connectedness, support, confidence and overall wellbeing. Insights into new mothers’ use of online social support to manage the re/construction of maternal identity and its ability to shape maternal wellbeing have implications for support provision by healthcare professionals.Item Being the 'good' mother : a discursive study of breastfeeding women's experiences of accessing early childhood education in New Zealand : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Psychology (Endorsement in Health Psychology) at Massey University, Auckland, Aotearoa New Zealand(2019) Henderson, Kaitlin ChristinaA majority of women in New Zealand will attempt breastfeeding, return to employment, and access early childhood education (ECE) care within the first year of their child’s life. There is a great interest in promoting and increasing national breastfeeding rates, yet little research exploring how normative ideals of motherhood influence breastfeeding women once they return to employment. Psychological studies that explore breastfeeding and employment often locate the issue at an individual level, constructing breastfeeding as a personal ‘choice’. Such research ignores the significant influence that structural barriers and societal pressures have on breastfeeding women’s ability to freely choose an infant feeding method. This research seeks to remedy this limited focus. In the current study, I was interested in examining how discursive constructions of breastfeeding shape women’s subjectivities as mothers, and the ways in which these subjectivities enable or constrain women’s ability to breastfeed. I utilised a poststructuralist approach to highlight how women’s constructions of breastfeeding influenced their accounts of infant feeding in ECE and workplace settings. I conducted qualitative interviews with seven women living in Auckland who had experienced combining breastfeeding with employment and I applied a Foucauldian discourse analysis to make sense of the data collected. Through my analysis I discovered that the participants worked to align themselves with the subject position of ‘good’ mother. Participant’s discursive constructions of breastfeeding worked to strengthen their subjectivities as ‘good’ mothers through three primary discourses; breastfeeding as best for the child, a natural and easy part of motherhood, and a difficult journey. The subjectivity of the ‘good’ mother had significant implications for how women navigated ECE and workplace settings. Participants often placed themselves under considerable stress to ensure they continued breastfeeding, despite structural difficulties. In the workplace the ‘good’ mother had to manage disruptions caused by breastfeeding, navigate poor management, and mitigate stigma. In ECE settings women had to manage tensions between public and private spheres and deal with low structural support. Women’s ability to uphold their status as ‘good’ mother in these contexts was often dependent on the level of privilege each participant held. Western constructions of motherhood compel women to be ‘good’ mothers regardless of the strain introduced. Therefore, I argue that by unpacking women’s constructions of breastfeeding and motherhood, in relation to ECE care and employment, the negative impacts of such discourses are highlighted and avenues to address these can become apparent.Item Knowledge, early recognition and acceptance : the journey to recovery from postnatal depression : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Nursing at Massey University(Massey University, 2006) Morton, Alice Mabel InaThe purpose of this qualitative study was to explore with women their experience of postnatal depression (PND), with a specific emphasis on what factors assisted and what factors hindered their recovery. Eight women who had suffered at some stage from PND took part in the study. Interviews were carried out using an in-depth interview technique with open-ended questions regarding their subjective experience, which were audio-taped and then transcribed. Using thematic analysis, the information obtained from the interviews was analysed and significant statements extracted. Patterns emerged and were clustered into three major themes: Knowledge, Early recognition and Acceptance. These three themes and the patterns within them were all closely entwined, each influencing the other and having a major effect on the woman's experience of PND and her recovery. Lack of knowledge was identified as a major hindrance to recovery, with women describing feelings of being in the dark, not knowing what was happening to them and feeling like a failure. This lack of knowledge was a barrier to seeking help, causing a delay in recognition and treatment which prolonged the illness and forced these women to suffer in silence. The opposite also applied where prior experience of PND enabled women to recognise the symptoms, seek help, receive treatment and recover more quickly. Postnatal depression is a common complication following childbirth. It can have devastating effects on the mother, the infant, the family and society. Recovery is not possible without knowledge about this condition, not only for the women themselves, but for society as a whole, including health professionals. Women in this study recognised that early recognition played a major role in their recovery, but also identified acceptance as a problem for themselves, health professionals and society, in delaying this process. As a result of this study, gaps within the New Zealand health service were identified, such as a lack of education about PND, parenting of a new baby and support services available in the community. Unrealistic expectations of mothers and the romantic media hype about childbirth and motherhood were also identified as an issue.Item Starting late : problems and coping strategies of women who delay parenting until after the age of 40 years : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Nursing at Massey University(Massey University, 1998) Vincent, NelThe purpose of this study was to explore the meaning of motherhood for women over 40 years of age at the birth of their first child. The research answers two questions, "What parenting related problems and coping strategies are identified by mothers who delay parenting until after the age of 40 years?", and "How can nurses and midwives provide effective support for older mothers?" The descriptive exploratory method used in this research proved to be very effective in enabling the mothers to relate their experiences as they perceived them. Data was gathered from semi-structured interviews and the process of thematic analysis was used to identify the major themes. The research highlighted the resourcefulness and the positive attitudes of the participants, who were able to draw on an abundance of resources from their previous roles as career women. Most of these women had expected to become mothers in their early to mid thirties if not before, but for some of them conception was a problem and for others the timing for motherhood was not right. The major stressors identified by the participants related to fertility issues and genetic screening. At these times they would have valued increased support from health professionals. One persistent theme was the concern "What if something happens", either to the child or themselves. There was a need to know everything related to their own and their childrens' experiences prior to making a decision. The teenage years were seen as a major problem, with most participants expressing their concern about the high incidence of mental health problems related to this group. Implications for nurses and midwives are explored throughout the study, with a discussion of the health and social services that the participants found to be helpful.Item Feminism, femininity and motherhood in post-World War II New Zealand : A thesis submitted for the degree of Master of Arts in history at Massey University(Massey University, 1995) Knox, HeatherHanging between the turmoil of global war and the social challenges and changes of later decades, the 1950s tends to be remembered as a time of social order, consensus and security. As a result, researchers often view these years as ones of stagnation for New Zealand women; a time when the stable nuclear family ruled supreme, when men's and women's roles were clearly delineated and little action was taken towards challenging them. However recent expansions of our perceptions of political activism have suggested otherwise. Helen May, for example, has taken a wider view of women's politics that incorporates domestic-based and non-controversial and argued that the apparent tranquility of the 1950s covered elements of conflict and contradiction. She and other historians maintain that women, while conforming to dominant expectations of their role, were also actively negotiating change in their lives. This thesis aims to investigate the extent to which three New Zealand women's groups centred on mothering, Parents' Centre, Play Centre and the Plunket Society, served as vehicles of these hopes for change. To this end, the relative degrees of progressive "feminist" and traditionalist "maternalist" elements within the organistions' philosophy and process are analysed. It is argued that the nature of each organisation is distinctive, with each showing a particular balance of feminist and maternalist characteristics. Together, the three organisations represent a continuum of women's political activities and illustrate the diversity of women's politics both within a particular time and within individual groups.Item Half the world away : a qualitative study exploring migration and motherhood in New Zealand : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Psychology at Massey University(Massey University, 2012) Ni Bhroin, RionaMigration is a global phenomenon. An estimated 214 million people worldwide have migrated from their countries of origin; 49% of whom are women. Previous research suggests that the juxtaposition of migration and motherhood has a considerable impact on the identity of women, and is associated with social isolation, economic strain and mental health concerns. In New Zealand, 23% of the population of women were born outside the country; despite this, there is limited local research into the impact of migration and motherhood. Half the World Away is a contribution to this gap in psychological research; the project explores the lived experience of migrant mothers in New Zealand. Feminist methodologies guide this research. Stories of migration and motherhood are explored using narrative analysis against the backdrop of La Mestiza metaphor. Half the World Away rejects previous assertions that migrant women become marginal women due to our inability to reconcile psychological conflict caused by migration. It explores how cultural discourses and master narratives split us into (n)either/(n)or and how women negotiate migration and motherhood by adopting pluralistic identities that transcend the conflicting realities of living between two cultures. Half the World Away offers a holistic analysis of experience and challenges dichotomous, linear models of the same by exploring the fluidity of migrant identity against socio-cultural and political spaces. This research offers new knowledge regarding identity, social and economic features of the lived experience of migrant women and mothers in New Zealand, thereby providing a new cultural resource to inform and guide psychological practice.Item "The Madonna myth" : the ideology of motherhood and it's [sic] influence on women with postnatal depression : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of Master of Social Work at Massey University(Massey University, 2001) Fry, Kim JacquelineThis thesis explores whether societal myths surrounding motherhood can contribute to the development of Postnatal Depression (PND) for some women. It considers the social construction of motherhood and the transmission of powerful messages to women, both before and during motherhood. It examines what happens when the reality of motherhood does not meet the idealise images of motherhood. The research involved face to face interviews with six women who had experienced PND. The key findings were that there are two strong myths surrounding motherhood. Mothers and non-mothers keep these alive in society. The myths are firstly, that motherhood is a natural stage for women in heterosexual relationships and that therefore the act of mothering is instinctual. The second myth is that motherhood brings with it fulfilment and happiness for the individual woman. The research found that the reality of motherhood also contains losses of identity and feelings of guilt and failure. These feelings are compounded for women with PND. The findings give rise to recommendations including increasing education and information about PND for pregnant women, increasing support services for new mothers more open and honest discussion in society about the realities of motherhood and the need to value mothers and their contribution to society.Item The distressing case of modern mothering : expectations, losses, and postnatal distress : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Clincal Psychology at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand(Massey University, 2011) Darrah, Anita JaneBecoming a mother is a significant milestone for women. Pregnancy and childbirth epitomise the most natural and normal of processes, and yet, paradoxically, they are increasingly pathologised as a medical event. This discourse of disease which surrounds motherhood has contributed to control of childbirth moving away from women as women lose confidence in their ability to perform this most natural of processes unaided. Along with losing confidence in their ability to manage the event of becoming a mother, women are losing their confidence to be a mother, and to mother instinctively, instead relying on media, on literature, and on others to tell them how best to do this most natural of roles. Some argue motherhood has been subjected to media manipulation and a process of sanitisation which exposes women to mothering myths from which they build their expectations of motherhood. This creates unrealistic expectations of motherhood and therefore it is little wonder women lose confidence in their ability to mother. And if motherhood is natural and normal, how do we understand the rates of postnatal distress reported in mothers? In order to answer that question this thesis proposes a new model of postnatal distress, which argues postnatal distress is caused by the disparity between women’s prenatal expectations and their postnatal experiences. Given all women experience a disparity between expectations and experience yet not all women report postnatal distress, a moderator variable, loss, was introduced. Elements of this new refined model were subsequently tested and it was found women hold a number of expectations prior to becoming pregnant and these expectations reflect a belief in a mythical image of mothering and mothers. Given postnatal distress has a definitive trigger, and a definitive risk population it is ideally suited to a preventative intervention. This thesis culminates with the design and piloting of such an intervention developed from the new model. The intervention uses a mindfulnessbased approach which comprises a three session group format, designed to be implemented with first-time mothers during pregnancy. Findings suggest the protocol can be implemented in a meaningful way and provide initial support for the acceptability and workability of the protocol.Item When motherhood beckons : an exploration of the transition to motherhood for HIV positive women : a thesis presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Masters in Philosophy, Massey University, Manawatu, New Zealand(Massey University, 2010) Hinks, AmandaThe aim of the research was to explore the transition to motherhood for women who have been diagnosed with HIV before pregnancy.Pregnancy is a time of adjustments for all women; socially psychologically and physically, the midwife has a fundamental role in supporting the woman to make a successful transition. HIV is increasing in New Zealand’s heterosexual population and with the national introduction of antenatal HIV testing midwives the diagnoses made will increase. Communities and health professionals need to hear about women’s experiences and recommendations from research about how best to provide individualised care for both mother and baby. This small research study was undertaken in 2008.Three women living in New Zealand with a positive HIV diagnosis were interviewed about their transition to motherhood. The babies of mothers in this study were aged between 3 and 18 months and the women knew their HIV diagnosis prior to pregnancy. The women spoke candidly about their experience of becoming pregnant, being pregnant and the transition to motherhood over the subsequent months of their babies’ lives. Three chapters present the themes from the women’s narratives; Chapter Four details the journey to becoming a mother. The themes identified were the desire to become a mother; “working hard for this baby”; maternal-infant attachment and “becoming a mother changes everything.” The themes in Chapter Five focus on how the women manage stigma and disclosure of their condition. The theme of managing disclosure in their personal world to family, friends and the child is identified. The maintenance of privacy and confidentiality is a theme arising from their step into the health service. In Chapter Six the theme of disempowering behaviours and perceived lack of evidence based care is discussed. The women describe how knowledge of HIV positive mothers was lacking as some health professionals queried “why aren’t you breastfeeding?” The women identified sources of support and knowledge which used to address the imbalance of power they felt whilst engaging with health professionals and wider society. In conjunction with midwives and other health professionals, the communities in which the women live are an integral component of supporting women to become mothers.