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Item Whose justice? Social (in)justice in tourism boycotts(Elsevier B.V., 2023-07-05) Seyfi S; Rastegar R; Kuhzady S; Hall CM; Saarinen J; Higgins-Desbiolles FBoycotting has long been acclaimed as an exemplary nonviolent tactic utilized in the pursuit of social justice. Guided by justice and political consumerism literature and using critical media discourse analysis, this study sought to investigate the portrayal of social justice in tourists' discourses surrounding travel boycott campaigns against Myanmar. While online narratives exhibit genuine concern for justice and morality, this research elucidates variations in the expression and application of justice, thereby emphasizing the intricate moral decision-making faced by tourists. Overall, this paper illustrates how social justice discourses may be usurped by tourists as a means to blunt justice narratives, calling for a new ‘moral turn’ in research that is more sensitive yet critical towards social justice in politicized tourism consumption.Item The dynamics of drug resistance evolution and diagnosis in Mycobacterium tuberculosis : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) in Genetics/Genomics, Massey University, Manawatu, New Zealand(Massey University, 2024-07-30) Fong, Yang (Richard)Tuberculosis (TB) remains a critical global health challenge with over 10.4 million new cases annually, complicated by rising antimicrobial resistance (AMR) threatening to surpass cancer mortality by 2050. This PhD thesis establishes a systematic diagnostic framework addressing AMR challenges through progressive research from fundamental microbiome characterization to innovative diagnostic applications in resource-limited settings like Myanmar. The "Microbiome Dataset from the Upper Respiratory Tract of Patients Living with HIV, HIV/TB and TB from Myanmar" establishes the foundational understanding of microbial community structures in complex clinical presentations (n=309 isolates). This microbiome characterization reveals critical signatures that directly inform direct sequencing strategies for enhanced MTBC detection in polymicrobial environments, addressing a fundamental challenge in AMR detection. Next, the "Genomic Profiling of Mycobacterium tuberculosis Strains, Myanmar" validates and expands these microbiome-informed approaches through comprehensive whole genome sequencing surveillance, establishing genotype-phenotype correlations that achieve 97.8% concordance with phenotypic testing. This genomic profiling directly addresses AMR surveillance gaps by enabling rapid resistance prediction. Subsequently by "Unveiling Hr-TB in Myanmar: Comprehensive Genotypic and Phenotypic Insights for Improved TB Management" demonstrates targeted application of microbiome-informed diagnostic approaches to isoniazid mono-resistant TB, a clinically critical AMR variant frequently missed by conventional methods. The integrated microbiome-genomic approach enhances MTBC detection accuracy by 23% compared to standard methods, reducing diagnostic time from weeks to under one week. Future perspectives translate these discoveries into field-deployable MDA primer systems for point-of-care AMR detection using portable MinION sequencing technology. This systematic progression from microbiome foundation to diagnostic innovation establishes a replicable technological blueprint for next-generation TB AMR diagnostics, supporting Myanmar's National TB Control Program while providing a framework for global TB elimination efforts Keywords: Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB), Tuberculosis (TB), Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR), Isoniazid Mono-Resistant (Hr-TB), Drug-Resistant Tuberculosis (DR-TB), Whole-genome sequencing (WGS), Resistance associated Mutations, Epidemiology, Surveillance, Rapid Diagnosis, Microbiome, Yangon, Myanmar.Item The role of producer organisations : the economic impact of membership on smallholder tea farmers in Myanmar : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Agribusiness at Massey University, School of Agriculture and Environment, Palmerston North, New Zealand(Massey University, 2024) Naw DianaMyanmar, despite its ideal climate conditions for tea cultivation and its being one of the major tea producers, smallholder tea farmers in the country face numerous challenges, including limited access to value-addition techniques, market information, affordable credit, and adequate infrastructure. Numerous studies suggest that producer organisations can address these issues by providing technical training, facilitating market access, and enabling collective bargaining, among other benefits. However, there is a significant research gap in understanding the economic impact of these organisations on Myanmar's tea industry. This study addresses this gap by exploring how producer organisations influence farmers' decisions to join and how membership subsequently affects their profitability. The study adopts a quantitative research approach using survey data collection methods. Before the survey, pre-interviews were conducted to gather insights and develop a comprehensive and relevant survey questionnaire. A survey was conducted with 400 smallholder tea farmers, comprising 239 members and 161 non-members of producer organisations. Econometric techniques, including probit regression and propensity score matching (PSM), were used to analyse the data. The probit regression model identified significant factors influencing the decision to join producer organisations, such as certification, access to market information, extension services, and education level. Specifically, certification increased the likelihood of joining by 89%, access to market information by 24%, extension services by 43% and education by 5.33%. In addition, the impact of membership on profit per acre was assessed using PSM, which revealed that membership significantly enhances profitability. The Nearest Neighbour Matching (NNM) and Radius Matching (RM) methods showed that membership results in significant average profit increases of 698,094 MMK and 640,183 MMK per acre, respectively. These results indicate that membership in producer organisations significantly enhances the profitability of smallholder tea farmers. The study suggests that encouraging wider participation in producer organisations is essential for enhancing the economic outcomes of more farmers. Producer organisations should strengthen their efforts, particularly in remote and less accessible areas, to inform farmers of membership benefits. Furthermore, governments and NGOs should actively support the development of producer organisations. Strengthening producer organisations' roles in facilitating certification, improving market linkages, and supporting sustainable farming practices will contribute to Myanmar's tea industry's long-term growth and sustainability.Item Comparative analysis of member benefits in the specialty coffee cooperative and the conventional coffee cooperative : a case study in Shan State, Myanmar : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Agribusiness at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand(Massey University, 2024) Hlaing, Hnin NuCooperatives play a significant role in enhancing smallholder farmers’ access to markets, increasing their income, and mitigating rural poverty. In Myanmar, agricultural cooperatives are seen as key to improving the socio-economic conditions of smallholder farmers, particularly in rural areas where agriculture is the primary livelihood. Although Shan State, holds significant potential for quality coffee production, many coffee farmers in the region face challenges in producing high-quality coffee and accessing profitable markets. Thus, this study focuses on comparing the member benefits of the specialty coffee cooperative and the conventional coffee cooperative in Shan State, examining their impact on the livelihoods of smallholder coffee farmers. A semi-structured questionnaire was designed, and data was collected through online Zoom interviews, using the convenience sampling method. The interviews were conducted with 18 cooperative members and 5 cooperative leaders and data were analyzed using qualitative methods. The study examined multiple dimensions of member benefits, including economic gains, social support, market access, quality control, and community development. The results revealed that the specialty coffee cooperative, managed by a professional team, enables access to international markets, offering higher prices for higher quality specialty coffee. In contrast, the conventional coffee cooperative, with lack of professional team, primarily caters to neighboring markets with lower quality standards. While the specialty coffee cooperative provides significant marketing, financial, and environmental benefits, the conventional coffee cooperative focuses on meeting immediate needs, such as providing low-cost agricultural inputs and services, but struggles with long-term sustainability and significant economic gains for its members. The results of this study are specific to the context of Shan State region and may not be generalizable to other areas. However, they may offer some important implications. While cooperatives themselves should aim for professional management and targeted training to the needs of members to maximize long-term sustainability and benefits for their members, policymakers should focus on creating a supportive environment for cooperatives by improving infrastructure and providing access to affordable credit and market information.Item Identifying potential for decision support tools through farm systems typology analysis coupled with participatory research: A case for smallholder farmers in Myanmar(MDPI (Basel, Switzerland), 2021-06-02) Thar SP; Ramilan T; Farquharson RJ; Chen D; Gröngröft ADecision Support Tools (DSTs) in agriculture have been widely developed but have not been well accepted by smallholder farmers. One reason for the limited use is that the tools do not account for the complexity of heterogeneous smallholder farming systems. Identifying farm typologies has facilitated technology transfer to target groups of farmers. Accounting for heterogeneity in farm systems can help in designing and deploying DSTs to address farmer needs. Typology analysis was applied to a 600-household survey dataset to identify different farm system types. Qualitative participatory research was used to assess the potential deployment of DSTs for fertilizer management. Six types of farm systems were identified with distinct characteristics in the study area of central Myanmar. Participatory research through focus group discussions with 34 participants from the six different farm types validated the farm typologies and found that farmers from one type considered that DSTs could be useful in gaining more information and knowledge. An important finding was that DSTs providing prescriptive advice were inconsistent with what many farmers want. Farmers indicated that discussion groups are a preferred learning-based approach rather than a prescriptive tool. Farmers preferred video clips and infographics integrated into existing familiar digital platforms. This study identifies heterogeneity within a large farm sample and develops a deeper understanding of fertilizer decisions as well as knowledge and intentions related to the use of DSTs or apps via follow-up focus group discussions. Incorporating a participatory research framework with typology identification can have a beneficial role in direct interactions with smallholders that may increase their acceptability of DSTs. This study has generated valuable information about farmer types and serves as a starting point for developing a framework for discussion support systems that may better relate to the needs of farmers.Item Recommended vs. Practice: smallholder fertilizer decisions in central Myanmar(MDPI (Basel, Switzerland), 2021-01-14) Thar SP; Farquharson RJ; Ramilan T; Coggins S; Chen DAgriculture in Myanmar has substantial development potential given the abundance of land, water, and labor resources in the country. Despite this, agricultural productivity in Myanmar is low and farm incomes are amongst the lowest in Asia. The underperformance of crops and low yield is widely reported to be due to low fertilizer use by smallholders. This study investigated the perceptions of smallholders about fertilizer use for cereal crops by considering their motives and decision making. We reported results of a 600 smallholders’ survey and tested whether the reportedly low fertilizer use by smallholders is generally true for central Myanmar. We compared the fertilizer application timing against recommended “good management practices”. Among the surveyed rice farmers, the average fertilizer applied was much higher than previously reported national average fertilizer rates while the majority of the surveyed maize farmers were found to be applying less than the national recommended rates. With respect to timing, nearly half of the surveyed smallholders were not applying nitrogen at the estimated panicle initiation stage, which is often crucial to increase yield, and the majority (82%) of smallholders were applying phosphorus throughout the growth stages, when earlier applications are desirable. Smallholders may be able to reduce the cost of labor by reducing the number of P applications and avoiding late applications.Item Genomic Profiling of Mycobacterium tuberculosis Strains, Myanmar(Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2021-11) Aung HL; Nyunt WW; Fong Y; Biggs PJ; Winkworth RC; Lockhart PJ; Yeo TW; Hill PC; Cook GM; Aung STMultidrug resistance is a major threat to global elimination of tuberculosis (TB). We performed phenotypic drug-susceptibility testing and whole-genome sequencing for 309 isolates from 342 consecutive patients who were given a diagnosis of TB in Yangon, Myanmar, during July 2016‒June 2018. We identified isolates by using the GeneXpert platform to evaluate drug-resistance profiles. A total of 191 (62%) of 309 isolates had rifampin resistance; 168 (88%) of these rifampin-resistant isolates were not genomically related, indicating the repeated emergence of resistance in the population, rather than extensive local transmission. We did not detect resistance mutations to new oral drugs, including bedaquiline and pretomanid. The current GeneXpert MTB/RIF system needs to be modified by using the newly launched Xpert MTB/XDR cartridge or line-probe assay. Introducing new oral drugs to replace those currently used in treatment regimens for multidrug-resistant TB will also be useful for treating TB in Myanmar.Item Upgrading options for Myanmar fresh ginger value chains : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of AgriCommerce, School of Agriculture and Environment, Massey University, Manawatu Campus, New Zealand(Massey University, 2019) Phoo, PhooThe agriculture sector plays a significant role in the economy of Myanmar and contributes 32% to the country’s gross domestic product (GDP). The current extent of the agriculture area in Myanmar is approximately 12 million hectares, occupying 18% of total cultivated land resources. Ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc) is one of the export crops in Myanmar with the annual production volume of 66,085 tons from an approximate cultivation area of 4,985 hectares. It is grown by smallholder farmers and offers major economic opportunity for more than 6,000 households in the Southern Shan State of Myanmar. Myanmar ginger production is only 3% of the total world ginger production. Although world demand for ginger is growing, exports from Myanmar are declining with 60 % of production has to be exported to low price regional markets with unstable demand and volatile prices. Hence, Myanmar needs to find out how to upgrade the fresh ginger value chains to export to high price markets such as the USA and the EU. This current study aims for a better understanding of the existing Myanmar fresh ginger value chain from production to end markets in overseas. Therefore, the present study investigated the constraints and opportunities of current Myanmar fresh ginger value chains along with identifying the upgrading options. Data from primary and secondary sources were used in this study by using a qualitative approach. Data were collected through semi-structured interviews, mailed questionnaires and document collection methods. Being a non-priority crop in Myanmar, the ginger sector has been paid little attention by the Government and hence, very limited research and development on the Myanmar ginger sector has been conducted. In order to export fresh ginger to high price markets, Global-GAP or organic certificates are required. The major constraints faced by the ginger value chain actors for achieving those certificates are found to be the long-term use of chemical herbicides and lack of technical awareness of integrated pests and disease management protocol. Apart from that, the present status of harvesting and post-harvest handling practices is also a constraint for achieving those certificates. An unreliable export market, high price volatility and cashflow constraints are major limitations faced by the value chain actors. Exchange rate volatility is a key constraint faced by exporters. Cold chain facilities and limited access to international banks, are both major issues for exporting Myanmar fresh ginger to high price markets. Introduction of appropriate financial market based instruments to overcome cashflow constraints would encourage farmers to adopt better production practices and timing of harvest. Additionally, the government participation in multi-disciplinary research, along with NGO support in the ginger sector, is found to be essential for upgrading the fresh ginger value chain in Myanmar. Increased collaboration between the public and private sectors, such as improvement of logistic facilities in the country, is recommended to improve the Myanmar fresh ginger sector. Such collaboration should assist in the aim for effective exports to the high price and reliable markets in the near future.Item Health justice for all : the development of alternative health system capabilities in the conflict-affected context of Shan State, Myanmar : a thesis presented in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Development Studies at Massey University, Manawatū, New Zealand(Massey University, 2018) Bell, Sharon MargaretAs the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development advances, it is vital to determine how conflict impacts on the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in conflict-affected contexts. The United Nations (UN) regards conflict as the leading risk to development progress as these contexts have high rates of poverty and limited access to crucial healthcare services. Shan State, Myanmar is one such context, facing a critical shortage in its health workforce, considered one of the building blocks of an effective health system. Approaches to building health workforce capabilities can meaningfully contribute towards meeting SDG 3 – ‘to ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages’, and consequently, health justice for conflict-affected communities. This research aims to understand how the approaches taken by an international nongovernmental organisation (INGO) support the development of alternative health system capabilities in a conflict-affected context. A global development agenda of state- and peace-building has meant that INGOs have been criticised for undermining state legitimacy. Meanwhile, non-state armed groups (NSAGs) in areas like Shan State, Myanmar, have established alternative regimes which seek self-determination as well as attempting to provide for the social and economic wellbeing of their people. However, little is known about how a partnership between an INGO and a NSAG contributes toward enabling alternative health system development in these contexts. This research contributes to new ways of understanding this through the development of a capabilities framework for health system development in conflict-affected contexts. This was used to analyse findings from the qualitative case study of an INGO’s health workforce training programme on the Myanmar-Thailand border. The research found that a positive partnership between the INGO and the NSAG has played a crucial role in enabling the workforce capabilities of the alternative health system, leading to promising improvements in health outcomes in communities. However, the effectiveness of the programme is restricted by the INGO’s reliance on volunteerism for staffing, where expatriate medical volunteers are selected based on their availability, rather than the appropriate skills and experience for this context. The international aid community has also reduced its funding for cross-border development programmes in Myanmar which has constrained the activities of the INGO and the NSAG. For Myanmar to achieve health justice and SDG 3, supporting health system development that focuses on improving health outcomes needs to be a priority for the international community.Item An exploratory value chain analysis for Burmese pickled tea (LAPHET) : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Masters of AgriCommerce in Agribusiness, Institute of Agriculture and Environment, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand(Massey University, 2016) Thar, So PyayLaphet (pickled tea) is a well-known traditional cuisine of Myanmar consisting of tea leaves fermented into a pickle. It has a unique taste different from tea used for drinking and has health benefits. Despite the fact that pickled tea is a popular food in Myanmar, no research has been done to analyse its value chain and evaluate its potential in the global market. This study is an exploratory research and aims to examine the value chain of pickled tea from production to the final consumer and to evaluate how to improve the quality in the value chain. In addition, the improvements to the integrity to the pickled tea value chain are addressed. The value chain analysis revealed the major actors in the pickled tea value chain and described the process as tea leaves pass through several intermediaries with value being added at each stage before reaching the end consumer. The chain is governed by wholesalers and manufacturers who have capital advantage over the other chain actors. Therefore, farmers get the lower share of the price margin. This study shows the domestic pickled tea value chain and it describes the upgrades to the chain if it is to be upgraded. Pickled tea is a profitable industry and has high potential in the global market. However, there are considerable weaknesses and challenges to developing a sustainable pickled tea industry from both farm and market perspective. Supply issues such as availability of tea leaves, quality and consistency of the pickled tea, and effective grading along the value chain were addressed. Food safety and traceability is also a key area of concern. The study recommends that value chain upgrading can help improve the effectiveness and efficiency of the chain. Generally, the findings suggest that strategies aiming to strengthen the linkages within the value chain, collective marketing, and improved processing technologies can enhance the development of the pickled tea value chain in Myanmar. Therefore, policy aiming at increasing farmers’ access to modern technology and inputs, developing infrastructure, cooperative development, and improving extension systems are recommended to accelerate the chain’s development.