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    The influence of lime sulphur on the quality and sulphur content of organic 'Royal Gala' and 'Braeburn' apples : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Philosophy in Agribusiness at Massey University
    (Massey University, 2007) Ihringer, Diana
    Black spot or apple scab is a major disease in apple (Malus domestica) production. Its control is especially difficult in organic production systems that rely on copper- and sulphur-based fungicides which are not very effective and demand a high number of applications throughout the season. The most commonly used fungicide in organic apple production is lime sulphur, which is known to be phytotoxic, especially towards the cultivar 'Braeburn'. The influence of different application rates of lime sulphur (1% anti 2%) was evaluated when applied 11 times throughout the growing season from October to February. As varieties differ in their susceptibility to lime sulphur, the two cultivars 'Royal Gala' and 'Braeburn' were compared in this study. Black spot incidence and severity, russet development and postharvest quality parameters were evaluated. At harvest, residues of sulphur on and in the apple were determined as total sulphur, total water-soluble non-protein thiol compounds and cysteine content. Both cultivars behaved similarly to the application of lime sulphur, but 'Braeburn' was affected to a greater extent. Lime sulphur decreased background colour, blush, firmness, soluble solids content and dry matter content in both cultivars; fruit size in 'Braeburn' and titratable acidity in 'Royal Gala'. The changes observed can possibly be attributed at least in part to the decrease in the photosynthetic rate, which was especially drastic in 'Braeburn'. Lime sulphur caused increased russet on 'Royal Gala', but not on 'Braeburn'. Significant sulphur residues were found in the skin and flesh of both cultivars and part of the lime sulphur applied was metabolized into water-soluble non-protein thiols and cysteine. These results are of significant interest to the organic industry as the use of lime sulphur may compromise the residue-free status of organic apples and could have an influence on consumer acceptance and flavour.
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    Organic livestock specifications : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Applied Science in Agribusiness at Massey University
    (Massey University, 2001) Benson, Stephen H
    Globally the organic market now comprises approximately 2% of the total food market and is growing in the order of 20% - 30% pa (Meat NZ 2000). Pasture based agriculture in New Zealand is in an ideal position to take advantage of this growth. BioGro New Zealand and AgriQuality New Zealand are currently the two dominant organic livestock specifications that farmers must produce to. The AgriQuality standard is based on the new European Union standard recently released. This study will investigate the requirements, implications and issues pertinent to a group of New Zealand livestock growers contemplating conversion to organic livestock production for the European market. A detailed literature review, multiple case study analysis of three BioGro farms and focus group discussion was conducted. The major distinction between the two standards is in the animal welfare and conversion period requirements. The AgriQuality standard permits up to three medical treatments per year, per animal without loss of organic status and the conversion can be quicker. Motives for the case study farmers converting to organic included, environmental, market opportunities and a desire to bring the soils, pastures and animals into 'balance'. Best management practice of the soils, pastures, animals and water on the farms was about accepting and minimising where possible the production risks through timing and proactive management with a preventative focus. Sourcing information, developing new skills and a drive to find new and different ways of answering conventional problems is critical. A lot of thought and energy goes into off farm marketing and value adding projects for market control and personal satisfaction. These differences in the standards could provide opportunities to farmers keen on a more environmentally friendly farming system that don't want to go to the full BioGro standard and conversion process. There may also be the opportunity to attain organic premiums from moving to the EU standard. Opinion on the EU standards was mixed. Some saw the EU standards as an easier option that gave the 'organic brand' a bad name. They felt having more than one organic label would confuse the consumer and be of detrimental value long term to the New Zealand organic industry. None of the case farmers would revert back from their BioGro Standards. Financial performance measures were not defined in this research. It would be unwise for a conventional farmer to convert to an organic system for financial reasons. Non-financial drivers such as the environment and social indicators are important measures. For progressive farmers that are after a more sustainable farming system the EU standard offers an opportunity. For these farmers financial and non financial performance measures will be important and attainable. The EU standard has the potential to 'out perform' conventional and BioGro systems - proving the hypothesis.
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    Exploring the conversion process in organic dairy farms : the case of organic dairy farmers in New Zealand : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Applied Science in Natural Resource Management at Massey University
    (Massey University, 2005) Schweikart Vial, Carolina
    This research explores how organic dairy farmers manage the process of conversion. In particular, it identifies the main problems that dairy farmers face during conversion and the strategies that they employ to overcome them. Further, this research examines farmers' perceptions of the implications of conversion for the social, environmental, and financial performance of the farm. An initial mail survey was sent to 65 certified and uncertified organic dairy farmers to provide a general picture of the impacts of conversion at the farm level and to generate an initial description of organic dairy systems in New Zealand. Secondly, semi-structured interviews were conducted with eight respondents of the survey in order to investigate in more depth their experiences with conversion and capture their practical knowledge of the conversion process. Interviewees were selected based on a range of criteria (e.g., diversity of location, stage in the conversion process, and farming system characteristics), with the intention of increasing the applicability of the findings. Results suggest that organic dairy farmers conceive of conversion as a learning process, in which by capturing information and then by building experience, farmers are able to utilize external information sources for the development of personal skills and effective management practices that aim at preventing potential problems. In particular, observation of the cows' appearance and behaviour, together with providing a favourable environment for the animals appears fundamental in preventing animal health problems. Analyses of the survey indicated that sourcing organic inputs is the only significantly important problem for organic dairy farmers. However, mastitis, feed shortfalls and weed control are also concerns expressed in the interviews. Common recommendations for managing conversion include applying organic fertilisers in advance, having extra supplements on hand, increasing the rotation length, delaying calving dates, and reducing stocking rates. Organic dairy farms are mostly grass, spring calving and self contained operations. Milk production per cow in organic systems appears to be similar to the average values for the district. However, milk production per hectare on organic farms was significantly lower than average values for the respective district (p<0.1). This probably resulted from a decline in pasture production requiring farmers to reduce their stocking rates. In general, milk production, both per cow and per hectare, declined in early stages of conversion but rebounded as conversion progressed. Finally, it is expected that New Zealand pastoral-based seasonal dairy systems to follow a relatively easy transition to organic farming, without experiencing as much of a reduction in productivity.
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    Risk-return analysis of high performing organic and conventional meat production systems : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Applied Science in Agricultural Systems and Management at Massey University
    (Massey University, 2001) Beheregaray Neto, Vasco
    Demand for organic meat is growing rapidly and so is the interest of New Zealand farmers in producing it. However, information on the advantages of such a system is limited. Studies that have evaluated organic farming systems were either carried out overseas under different conditions or were solely based on comparisons of before versus after the conversion to organic farming, instead of organic versus alternative investment options. The present study examines the economic viability of options available to commercial meat producers of high performance organic systems and a high performance conventional farming system in New Zealand. This involved a robust analysis evaluating the risk-return profiles of strategic enterprise changes and linking these to the risk-preferences of the managers. The Stockpol® model was used to simulate the biological feasibility and undertake a preliminary economic assessment of the alternatives: (i) Full organic and (ii) Intensive beef cattle and lamb finishing systems. A spreadsheet (Excel®) model was developed to undertake a full economic and risk analysis (@Risk®) of those options. Both the full organic and intensive conventional options had a greater chance of achieving long-term target sustainable business growth (SBG) for both case study farms than their base systems (status quo). Continuation of the base system had lower net operating profit after tax (NOPAT) for both case study farms and a lower probability of achieving acceptable levels of business growth. On Case Farm One, the NOPAT mean of the conventional was higher and exhibited greater variation than the full organic alternative. On Case Farm Two, the NOPAT mean of the full organic was also slightly lower than the conventional option but both options exhibited a very similar risk-return profile. The sensitivity regression analysis revealed for both farmers that market uncertainty had the greatest impact on NOPAT mean variability followed by premium price for organic farms, then production risk. So, premium price is an important factor influencing farm profitability. The Activity-Based Costing (ABC) has shown that organic farming had higher production costs than conventional farming because of changes in the enterprise structure. The cumulative distribution function of production costs showed greater variability for lamb meat under the full organic option while beef production costs has more variation under the conventional alternative. The challenges of organic farming are significant e.g. animal health, weeds, and marketing. Therefore, it requires progressive managers to develop business skills associated with strategic management to enhance their proactive production approach. Managers must be thinking differently in terms of product and market and an open mind and willingness to learn are essential requisites to cope with organic farming. Further research could involve this approach using other livestock enterprises and the models developed could be used to quantify the benefits gained from improvements to the system such as selection for parasite resistance. Key words: organic farming, activity based costing, strategic plan, modelling, model, progressive farmers, New Zealand, risk-return profile, sustainable business growth.
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    Genetic engineering and organic agriculture : perceptions of organice exporters, producers, and consumers : a thesis presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Applied Science in Natural Resource Management
    (Massey University, 2000) Wreford, Anita Barbara
    Genetic engineering technology is becoming increasingly widespread throughout the world. Since the late 1990s there has been intense controversy regarding its use in food production. Organic agriculture could lose or gain significantly from consumer uncertainty and apprehension regarding the genetic engineering of food products. Concerns about genetic engineering spread across the world, and organic agriculture is in a strong position to exploit consumer concerns about genetically engineered food. However, organic farming is also at risk from the cross-contamination of engineered crops, pest-resistance exacerbated by the technology, and the corruption of organic seedlines. In addition, there has been debate as to whether organic standards should be altered to permit the use of genetically engineered crops. This study attempts to gauge the attitudes of three key sectors of the organic industry in New Zealand towards genetic engineering, namely producers, exporters and consumers of organic food in New Zealand. Producers of organic food in New Zealand were questioned regarding their views on genetic engineering, and whether they would consider incorporating genetically engineered crops in their food production. Exporters of New Zealand organic produce were questioned on the international organic markets and the exporters own opinions of consumer concerns towards genetically engineered food. Consumers of organic food were surveyed on their attitudes and beliefs about genetic engineering, and the possibility of genetically engineered organic food. Results for each survey sample were analysed using the statistical package SPSS. The results show conclusively that organic exporters, producers and consumers do not want to eat or grow genetically engineered organic food. This appears to be based on intrinsic and ethical concerns as much as environmental and health concerns. Even if reassured about the safety of genetically engineered food to the environment and to human health, most organic consumers claim they would not eat it. It is concluded that there is no future for genetic engineering in the organic industry. The industry would be wise to take advantage of the general consumer unease towards genetic engineering. Research into alternative methods of pest control would also be advised. Keywords: Organic agriculture, Genetic engineering, Genetically modified organism, Consumer perception.
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    Effect of organic crop rotation on soil fertility : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Agricultural Science in Soil Science, Massey University
    (Massey University, 1995) Sutassanamalee, Angsana
    Studies of soil nutrient fertility status of the organic and conventional plots at the Flock House cropping and organic units, Bulls, were undertaken to investigate the effects of organic crop rotation system on soil chemical fertility. Soil samples (0-75 mm, 75-150 mm, 150-300 mm depths) were collected from two organic plots lying adjacent to conventional plots of identical soil type (Manawatu silt loam) in Autumn and Spring. The crop rotation plots were established in 1988. Soil samples were analysed for total C, total N, mineralizable N, extractable P (Olsen), exchangeable K, CEC and pH. Earthworm surface casts collected from the surface of these plots were also analysed for exchangeable K and CEC. Results of this study showed that after seven years of conversion to organic management, there were significant quantitative increases in the soil nutrient levels at topsoil depth 0-75 mm. Organic plot number 3 (OP3), now under clover based pasture showed higher percent of organic C and N than the organic plot under continuous cultivation (OP5) and conventional plot (CP8). Mineralizable N was significantly higher in the soil of OP3 and the mean topsoil (0-75 mm) value increased from 104 to 139 μg g-1 (67%) from Autumn to Spring collected soils. Crop rotation under continuous cultivation resulted in decrease of mineralizable N from 90 to 30 μg g-1 (150%) from Spring to Autumn collected soils at depth 0-75 mm. Extractable soil P (Olsen) remained significantly high in CP8 in both Autumn and Spring seasons. Soil Ca and Mg were significantly higher in the organic plots during Autumn but there was no significant difference observed in Spring collected soils. Exchangeable K levels were similar under both organic and conventional management system and generally showed higher amounts at topsoil (0-75 mm) as a result of mixing with earthworm surface casts which contained appreciably high amounts of K, Ca and Mg. Soil CEC was generally higher in organic plots. Surface casting by earthworm was significantly higher (> 1000 casts m-2) in OP3 as compared to 380 casts m-2 and 300 casts m-2 in OP5 and CP8 respectively. This coincided with greater a cation nutrient status observed in the Spring collected soil samples. Organic management under different crop rotation system resulted in significantly variable levels of soil nutrient fertility. Seven years of crop rotation under the organic system was sufficient to maintain sustainable levels of soil nutrient fertility.
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    Farm management and soil quality : an investigation into the effects of conventional and organic crop rotation systems on soil quality indicators : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Masters of Agricultural Science in Soil Science at Massey University
    (Massey University, 1995) Steensel, Frank van
    The physical and biological properties of soil from the pasture phase of organic and conventional crop rotation systems were compared. At the same time, a similar comparison was made of soil from the crop phase versus soil of the pasture phase of organic plots. A search was started for a new biological indicator of soil quality. The potential use of the relative abundance of fluorescent pseudomonad bacteria in rhizosphere soil and on the rhizoplane of plants in conventional and organic plots was explored. Soil respiration was also evaluated as an indicator of soil quality. Several soil amendments including earthworm casts, rhizosphere soil, compost material and biodynamic "preparation 500" were examined for their effect. The research has concluded that; 1. The pasture phase of organic crop rotation had superior soil quality to the similar pasture phase of the conventional plot. 2. Though recently cultivated, the pasture phase of the organic rotation system was able to restore appropriate levels of soil quality. 3. The relative abundance of fluorescent soil pseudomonad bacteria was greater in soil from the organic plot. 4.Based on soil respiration activity, none of the organic amendments were able to show a stimulation of soil biological activity in soil from organic or conventional crop rotation plots.
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    Phosphate rock fertilisers to enhance soil P status and P nutrition on organic cropping farms : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Plant Science at Massey University
    (Massey University, 2009) Shaw, Scott Robert
    The soils used by the East Coast Organic Producers Trust (ECOPT; the grower group that this study is targeted towards) have exceptionally low soil Olsen P concentrations (ca. 6 mg/L). These and other limitations (e.g. poor weed and pest and disease control) result in many ECOPT growers being unable to produce economic yields on anything other than small scale gardens. Fertilisers and manures are seldom used by these growers, which exacerbates the problem. Thus, the object of this research was to provide information to ECOPT on which fertilisers and application strategies would provide the best returns on their phosphorus (P) fertiliser investment. The experimental work was carried out in two parts. A laboratory study tested a range of phosphate rock (PR) based fertilisers and application rates; Ben Guerir reactive phosphate rock (RPR; 67, 133, 267, 533 and 1,333 mg P/kg soil), BioPhos and BioSuper (267 and 1,333 mg P/kg soil) and a no fertiliser Control. Soil fertiliser mixtures were incubated for 155 days and periodic measurements of PR dissolution, soil pH and Bic-P (analogous to Olsen P but expressed in µg/g) were undertaken. The field study used fewer application rates and two application methods; banded and broadcast. Broadcast plots were applied at 678 mg P/kg soil (488 kg P/ha); banded RPR was applied at 236, 678 and 1475 mg P/kg soil (40, 115 and 250 kg P/ha respectively) and banded BioPhos and BioSuper at 678 mg P/kg soil (115 kg P/ha). A Control was also included. Fertilisers were applied in October 2004 and changes in soil pH and Bic-P were measured in the broadcast plots only over a 344 day period. Potato (Solanum tuberosum L. cv. Desiree) was the test crop. Regression analysis was used to generate exponential equations to describe the changes in Bic-P over time (∆Bic-P). Differences between fertilisers in the amount of P dissolved and pH fluxes were used to explain the differences in ∆Bic-P. BioSuper dissolved quicker and generated greater ∆Bic-P than RPR and BioPhos, which were similar. Higher application rates produced greater increases in Bic-P than lower rates but decreased the % of P applied that dissolved. The increase in Bic-P over time from fertiliser application was much slower in the field compared with the laboratory. This was put down to differences in experimental conditions; mainly soil pH and soil aggregate surface area. Potato tuber yield (mean = 35 t/ha) did not respond to any of the fertiliser treatments despite a significant increase in P concentration of the shoots mid-way through the season in all broadcast treatments (shoot P concentration was not analysed in the banded plots). Water and N availability were the main limiting factors in this season as the crop was not irrigated and soil N supply was insufficient to produce a full canopy. Phosphorus response curves generated using the fertiliser response model PARJIB (Reid, 2002), and an economic analysis, indicated that for RPR and BioPhos the optimum economic application rate was 200 kg P/ha and for BioSuper it was 100 kg P/ha (applied every third and second year respectively).
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    Organic agriculture: an empowering development strategy for small-scale farmers? A Cambodian case study : a thesis presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Philosophy in Development Studies at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2008) Beban, Alice
    This thesis explores claims that organic agriculture may be an empowering development strategy by investigating the impacts of conversion to organic farming systems on the lives of small-scale farmers in Cambodia. The thesis interrogates the diverse uses and abuses of the term =empowerment‘ in development rhetoric and argues for an empowerment model that is derived from farmers‘ self-defined concepts of development. This model was used to conduct a qualitative case study involving semistructured interviews and focus groups with members of organics initiatives in seven diverse Cambodian communities. Results indicate that many farmers in all communities felt that their most important objective was not only to achieve food security, but to be able to grow sufficient rice to feed their family. Farmers joined the organics initiatives primarily to improve their health and reduce the cost of farming inputs. As a result of joining the initiatives, all farmers (including both certified and non-certified organic farmers) felt they had improved their health and food security. Most farmers also increased incomes, created stronger family and community ties and felt they had more control over their livelihoods. These benefits were not, however, distributed equally amongst individuals or communities. Very poor and isolated farmers could not generally access benefits. The three main factors that determined the impact of the organics initiatives on farmer empowerment were identified as: the individual‘s level of resources, the strength of the farmer group, and the policies and values of the supporting organisation. The implications for future initiatives are, firstly, the tremendous potential for farmers and wider rural communities to benefit from organic agriculture as a development strategy. However, this study also shows that if organics is to be viable for low-resource people, it may be necessary to promote both resources and techniques in organics initiatives. Also, a focus on building strong relationships both within the farmers group and linkages with local and wider stakeholders may enhance long-term sustainability of organics initiatives.