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    Exploring the constructs young people hold about non-suicidal self-injury : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Health Science in Psychology at Massey University, Manawatū, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2019) McKegg, Laura Jean
    Non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI) is a highly prevalent and alarming behaviour that has recently been highlighted as an area needing further research. It is not a stand-alone diagnosis, however features as a symptom in several disorders. NSSI also features heavily in the general population, in those who have not reached a diagnostic threshold. Prevalence rates and risk factors for New Zealand and the rest of the world are continuing to emerge as a clear single definition of the behaviour is agreed on. Theories about the function NSSI behaviour serves for the individual engaging in it are continuing to be explored, and several promising interventions are also being developed. Non-suicidal self-injury is typically a private behaviour, which makes reaching those who engage in the behaviour difficult. Exploring the ideas that young people hold about those who engage in non-suicidal self -injury is the focus of this current research. This is conducted to understand more about ways the behaviour is viewed by both people with a history of NSSI, and those with no history. The aim is twofold, firstly to see what researchers have to say about NSSI behaviour and how lay views, the views of the participants align with these views or if the participants view NSSI in a completely different manner. Secondly, to see if those with a personal history of NSSI respond in a different way to those with no personal history of NSSI. Seventeen females were interviewed, using an existing technique, mixed repertory grid analysis, to explore and understand the views they hold about people they know and believe to have engaged in NSSI. This technique required each participant to rate people they know in relation to how closely they align with contrasting concepts. Findings provide evidence to support the use of repertory grids to explore views of NSSI behaviour. Views of participants both with and without a history of NSSI align with what previous research has found in relation to existing risk factors of NSSI. Adding to previous research, the use of lay experts to develop interventions could prove useful, exploring the protective role of belonging in relation to NSSI and exploring poor work ethic and reliability as outcomes of NSSI behaviour. Health promoting initiatives that provide practical guidelines for family members and peers of those who engaged in NSSI with a focus on NSSI specifically as opposed to self-harming behaviour in general is needed.
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    An action research application of personal construct psychology in organisations : the use of cognitive maps to produce policies for action : a dissertation presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Psychology at Massey University
    (Massey University, 1990) Hill, Robin Anthony
    The research developed out of an interest to clarify people's values and to relate these to a repertoire of past, present and future behavioural or environmental patterns. Cognitive maps, derived from Repertory Test and Laddering techniques, directly illustrate this relationship between superordinate values and subordinate behaviours, objects, symbols and environments. Repertory Test and Laddering Technique are associated with Personal Construct Psychology. This dissertation describes Personal Construct Psychology and related methodology as founded by Kelly (1955). It then follows one branch of the further development of the theory. The second generation developments of Hinkle (1965) are examined, followed by subsequent developments and applications ; particularly those of Little (1983) and Eden (1977, 1978, 1980, 1988). Using an action research approach, the methods developed by these personal construct psychologists, were applied to problems in three organisational interventions : 1. an individual client vocational-redundancy counselling situation, 2. an intervention with a work group who were experiencing dysfunctional internal relationships and, 3. in a team-building intervention with the inaugural Board of Trustees of a Primary School. In all cases the procedure used Repertory Test and Laddering procedures to identify individual cognitive maps. In the latter projects these were aggregated to form group cognitive maps, and in all cases the final intent was to produce a policy or specification for action. A pre-test post-test untreated control groups design was used in the final study to assess the comparative progress and development of three school Boards of Trustees. In the vocational-redundancy counselling case, the procedure provided the client with a policy for action that he could use to guide future career and lifestyle behaviours. It revealed both lack of control over one's anticipated future and the need to reconstrue one's future, as sources of negative response to severance for this client. The study clearly demonstrated the notion that a construct is defined by that which is both superordinate and subordinate to it, and in particular enabled the client to define what his religious beliefs meant to him. In subsequent studies this method of construct definition formed the basis of a procedure for the content analysis of cognitive maps, describing them verbally and for aggregating them into collective cognitive maps. With the dysfunctional work group, identification of a collective cognitive map formed a description of the groups functions and was translated into a statement of purpose. It was also useful for enhancing self awareness, organisational awareness and for clarifying both group and individual role. In the team building intervention with a school's Board of Trustees, the Treatment group displayed not only improvement on more scales than the control groups, but also improvement of greater magnitude than the control groups. This data supported the Treatment group's self report of benefits gained from the intervention. The intervention provided the Board with a guiding policy for action, which they were then able to apply directly to formal policies required by statute. It was demonstrated, therefore, in three separate organisational contexts, that an applied personal construct, cognitive map approach, based on repertory test and laddering techniques, was viable for intervention purposes where role clarification, values clarification and formation of a policy for action was desired. Methods were refined for portraying cognitive maps and expressing these verbally. Issues surrounding organisation development content analysis of construct systems and the role of action research were discussed. The processes and findings of the dissertation were related back to the theory of personal construct psychology. Kelly founded Personal Construct Psychology in the applied setting, and it is claimed that it is in the applied setting that it displays particular power.
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    An application of Kelly's personal construct theory to counselling : a philosophical and empirical study ; a dissertation presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at Massey University
    (Massey University, 1993) Anderson, Ruth Hilary
    Counselling is a process of interpersonal interaction in which clients increase their understanding of themselves in relation to others. Investigations of counselling and psychotherapeutic practice have traditionally focused either on the process of counselling or its outcomes (Greenberg, 1986a). More recently, however, researchers have argued that counselling research should focus upon relationships between counselling process and therapeutic outcomes (Greenberg, 1986a, 1986b; Garfield, 1990). The theory of personal constructs, elaborated by Kelly (1955), provides a theoretical framework for the study of both counselling process and its relation to in-session outcomes. This study demonstrates an application of personal construct theory to an investigation of therapeutic process and its relationship to therapeutic outcomes. In this dissertation, the metatheoretical assumptions of Kellian theory are discussed and fundamental theoretical concepts are elaborated. In addition, the theoretical relationship between personal constructs, common constructs and social constructs in the context of counselling is described. This study also extends the work of Proctor (1985a, 1985b, 1987) to suggest a possible theoretical relationship between people's constructs and their verbal behaviour. The establishment of role relationships through verbal interaction is a further subject of discussion. The investigation described in this dissertation involved an application of the fundamental principles and concepts of Kellian theory to a study of counselling and psychotherapeutic practice. Research participants were four therapists and eight clients. The therapists were chosen from those who described their practice orientation as largely consistent with a humanistic-existential approach to therapy. The average age of the therapists was 48.25 years and the average number of years of practice experience was 13.75 years. The average age of the clients who participated in the study was 35.25 years. For the purpose of this investigation, each therapist engaged in a single audio-taped therapeutic interview with each of two clients. Prior to engagement in therapy each therapist and each client completed a personal character sketch. Subsequent to therapy, each client was asked to indicate therapeutic interactions in the preceding counselling session which may have had personal significance. Therapists were also asked to identify in-session therapeutic events which may have had personal significance for their clients. "Laddering" (Hinkle, 1965) and "pyramiding" (Landfield, 1971) techniques were then used to elicit constructs which may have been associated with constructs indicated by participants' verbal behaviour during the course of psychotherapy. Data analysis followed the order of data collection. Guidelines were established for the identification of role construct poles, based upon Davis, Stroud and Green (1989). In addition, a list of categories was developed for the classification of role construct pole expressions derived from the self-characterisations completed by therapists and their clients. Analysis of the therapeutic interviews involved the identification of verbal expressions of therapist and client constructions. In the third, and final stage of analysis, associations between constructs indicated during counselling and constructs indicated in the post-therapy interviews were discussed. The outcomes of this study suggest that therapists may construe themselves with a greater diversity of role constructs than the range of role constructs used by clients in their construal of themselves. Nevertheless, there is evidence to suggest that construct commonality often exists between therapists and their clients. However, there was little similarity between constructs indicated by the content of therapists' self-characterisations, and the constructs indicated by the verbal behaviour of therapists during counselling. In contrast, the verbal behaviour of five clients during counselling indicated constructs which were similar to those indicated by the content of their self-characterisations. A further outcome of this investigation was the identification of six levels ot construing: a) client constructions, b) client superordinate constructions, c) therapist constructions, d) therapist constructions of client constructions, e) therapist constructions of client superordinate constructions, and f) therapist superordinate constructions. This study indicates that therapists' superordinate constructs, which govern their subordinate constructions, have a significant influence upon the counselling process. In particular, client construct system change may follow when therapists and their clients do not share similar superordinate constructs. However, this study suggests that therapists must have constructions of their clients' constructions which are similar to the constructions which their clients have expressed. Only under such circumstances may therapists be able to predict possible changes in clients' construct systems which may occur during counselling. Implications are indicated for counselling and psychotherapy research, therapeutic practice and therapist education and training. This investigation provides further evidence that the character sketch, first proposed by Kelly (1955), can be used in research contexts. Moreover, when character sketches are used in conjunction with a relevant list of categories, they may provide evidence of the constructs which govern the constructions which clients express during counselling. This outcome may have particular relevance to researchers and practitioners. A significant implication of this study is that personal construct theory may be used as a framework for the analysis of counselling and psychotherapeutic interactions in which the therapist adopts an approach to practice which is largely inconsistent with personal construct therapy. Notably, this study demonstrates that an application of personal construct theory to therapy process research enables the identification of links between the overt verbal behaviour of therapists and their clients, and the usually inaccessible psychological processes which govern that behaviour. Interactions in the context of single counselling sessions may be described and occasions of psychological change identified. In addition, apparent links between in-session interactions and therapeutic outcomes may be demonstrated. Thus, applications of personal construct theory to investigations of counselling enable researchers to meet the objective of contemporary research: therapeutic process can be demonstrably linked to therapeutic outcomes. Importantly too, therapist educators may be able to relate student practice to possible client outcomes, thereby enhancing the educational outcomes of counsellor and psychotherapist education and training.