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Item Airborne Fumigants and Residual Chemicals in Shipping Containers Arriving in New Zealand(Oxford University Press on behalf of the British Occupational Hygiene Society, 2022-05) Hinz R; 't Mannetje A; Glass B; McLean D; Douwes JBACKGROUND: Airborne fumigants and other hazardous chemicals inside unopened shipping containers may pose a risk to workers handling containers. METHODS: Grab air samples from 490 sealed containers arriving in New Zealand were analysed for fumigants and other hazardous chemicals. We also collected grab air samples of 46 containers immediately upon opening and measured the total concentration of volatile organic compounds in real-time during ventilation. Additive Mixture Values (AMV) were calculated using the New Zealand Workplace Exposure standard (WES) and ACGIH Threshold Limit Values (TLV) of the 8-h, time-weighted average (TWA) exposure limit. Regression analyses assessed associations with container characteristics. RESULTS: Fumigants were detectable in 11.4% of sealed containers, with ethylene oxide detected most frequently (4.7%), followed by methyl bromide (3.5%). Other chemicals, mainly formaldehyde, were detected more frequently (84.7%). Fumigants and other chemicals exceeded the WES/TLV in 6.7%/7.8%, and 7.8%/20.0% of all containers, respectively. Correspondingly, they more frequently exceeded '1' for the AMV-TLV compared to the AMV-WES (25.7% versus 7.8%). In samples taken upon opening of doors, fumigants were detected in both fumigated and non-fumigated containers, but detection frequencies and exceedances of the WES, TLV, and AMVs were generally higher in fumigated containers. Detection frequencies for other chemicals were similar in fumigated and non-fumigated containers, and only formaldehyde exceeded both the WES and TLV in both container groups. Volatile compounds in container air reduced rapidly during ventilation. Some cargo types (tyres; personal hygiene, beauty and medical products; stone and ceramics; metal and glass; and pet food) and countries of origin (China) were associated with elevated airborne chemical and fumigant concentrations. CONCLUSION: Airborne chemicals in sealed containers frequently exceed exposure limits, both in fumigated and non-fumigated containers, and may contribute to short-term peak exposures of workers unloading or inspecting containers.Item Pesticide exposure in New Zealand school-aged children: Urinary concentrations of biomarkers and assessment of determinants(Elsevier Ltd, 2022-05) Li Y; Wang X; Feary McKenzie J; 't Mannetje A; Cheng S; He C; Leathem J; Pearce N; Sunyer J; Eskenazi B; Yeh R; Aylward LL; Donovan G; Mueller JF; Douwes JThis study aimed to assess pesticide exposure and its determinants in children aged 5-14 years. Urine samples (n = 953) were collected from 501 participating children living in urban areas (participant n = 300), rural areas but not on a farm (n = 76), and living on a farm (n = 125). The majority provided two samples, one in the high and one in the low spraying season. Information on diet, lifestyle, and demographic factors was collected by questionnaire. Urine was analysed for 20 pesticide biomarkers by GC-MS/MS and LC-MS/MS. Nine analytes were detected in > 80% of samples, including six organophosphate insecticide metabolites (DMP, DMTP, DEP, DETP, TCPy, PNP), two pyrethroid insecticide metabolites (3-PBA, trans-DCCA), and one herbicide (2,4-D). The highest concentration was measured for TCPy (median 13 μg/g creatinine), a metabolite of chlorpyrifos and triclopyr, followed by DMP (11 μg/g) and DMTP (3.7 μg/g). Urine metabolite levels were generally similar or low compared to those reported for other countries, while relatively high for TCPy and pyrethroid metabolites. Living on a farm was associated with higher TCPy levels during the high spray season. Living in rural areas, dog ownership and in-home pest control were associated with higher levels of pyrethroid metabolites. Urinary concentrations of several pesticide metabolites were higher during the low spraying season, possibly due to consumption of imported fruits and vegetables. Organic fruit consumption was not associated with lower urine concentrations, but consumption of organic food other than fruit or vegetables was associated with lower concentrations of TCPy in the high spray season. In conclusion, compared to other countries such as the U.S., New Zealand children had relatively high exposures to chlorpyrifos/triclopyr and pyrethroids. Factors associated with exposure included age, season, area of residence, diet, in-home pest control, and pets.Item Neuropsychological symptoms in workers handling cargo from shipping containers and export logs(Springer-Verlag GmbH, 2022-10) Hinz R; 't Mannetje A; Glass B; McLean D; Douwes JPURPOSE: Acute poisonings of workers handling shipping containers by fumigants and other harmful chemicals off-gassed from cargo have been reported but (sub)-chronic neuropsychological effects have not been well studied. METHODS: This cross-sectional study assessed, using standardised questionnaires, current (past 3-months) neuropsychological symptoms in 274 container handlers, 38 retail workers, 35 fumigators, and 18 log workers, all potentially exposed to fumigants and off-gassed chemicals, and a reference group of 206 construction workers. Prevalence odds ratios (OR), adjusted for age, ethnicity, smoking, alcohol consumption, education, personality traits and BMI, were calculated to assess associations with the total number of symptoms (≥ 3, ≥ 5 or ≥ 10) and specific symptom domains (neurological, psychosomatic, mood, memory/concentration, fatigue, and sleep). RESULTS: Compared to the reference group, exposed workers were more likely to report ≥ 10 symptoms, statistically significant only for retail workers (OR 6.8, 95% CI 1.9-24.3) who also reported more fatigue (OR 10.7, 95% CI 2.7-42.7). Container handlers with the highest exposure-duration were more likely to report ≥ 10 symptoms, both when compared with reference workers (OR 4.0, 95% CI 1.4-11.7) and with container handlers with shorter exposure duration (OR 7.5, 95% CI 1.7-32.8). The duration of container handling was particularly associated with symptoms in the memory/concentration domain, again both when compared to reference workers (OR 8.8, 95% CI 2.5-31.4) and workers with the lowest exposure-duration (OR 6.8, 95% CI 1.5-30.3). CONCLUSION: Container handlers may have an increased risk of neuropsychological symptoms, especially in the memory/concentration domain. Retail workers may also be at risk, but this requires confirmation in a larger study.Item Neuropsychological functioning and pesticide exposure in children aged 6-11 : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Clinical Psychology at Massey University, Wellington, New Zealand(Massey University, 2018) Brinkmann, YanisPesticide exposure has been linked with numerous health concerns in both adults and children, including problems with cognition and behaviour. Research in this area is complicated by different pesticide exposure profiles across different countries, and results may not generalise to a New Zealand context. The current study aimed to investigate the effects of pesticide exposure in New Zealand children. It extended previous research by studying more cognitive domains, thus providing a more thorough understanding of effects on cognitive functioning. Four hundred and forty three children from the Wellington and Hawkes Bay regions were assessed using subtests from the NEPSY-II, WISC-IV and TEA-Ch. Pesticide exposure was measured using questionnaire and dust sample data which served as proxies for both pre- and post-natal exposure. Prenatal exposure was found to be significantly associated with lower memory scores, while postnatal exposure was associated with lower scores in working memory, facial memory and executive functioning. No effects were found for attention, motor speed, processing speed, verbal memory, and social perception. These results suggest the presence of effects of pesticide exposure on some aspects of child neuropsychological development in New Zealand. While the results are based on initial analyses, and are thus preliminary, the thesis will contribute to a larger project looking at pesticides and public health, and provide important information for regulators around public safety in the future.Item The effect of some substituted phenoxyacetic acids on the respiration of three species of fern : a thesis presented at Massey Agricultural College in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Agricultural Science in the University of New Zealand(Massey University, 1955) Simpson, G. M.The problem of control ot weeds in agricultural land has long confronted man, and toxic chemicals have been employed for half a century in eradication or suppression of weeds. The last two decades have seen a tremendous expansion in the use and variety of applications, principally because of the development ot translocated organic compounds of a growth regulatory type which very often are highly selective. Some indication of the interest in chemical weed control, for example with the substituted phenoxyacetic acids, can be seen in the fact that in the U.S.A. alone over twenty million pounds of 2.4-D is manufactured annually. The volume of research has likewise been tremendous. Norman et al. (1), reviewing the field in 1950 covered some three hundred and fifty new papers for the previous year on phytotoxicity. The mechanism of action of growth regulatory type herbicides is an important problem, particularly in so far as it may throw light on the physiology of plant growth and development, and their control by plant hormones. The general approach is still largely empirical, involving a high degree of speculation in the selection and synthesis of new compounds followed by trial and error tests in the laboratory, glasshouse and fields. Detailed physiological studies have been limited and it is only by such study that the principles of toxic action can be laid down. This study is an attempt to examine one small facet, the effect of plant regulators on respiration of a complex and rapidly expanding field of endeavour.Item The effects of methyl parathion on the colony dynamics of Apis mellifera : a thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Ecology at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand(Massey University, 2000) Taylor, Michelle AnneThe detrimental effects of pesticides to honey bee colonies were assessed using a combination of electronic and manual sampling techniques. Initial experiments determined that electronic bee counters could be used to identify and monitor toxic events occurring in honey bee colonies, and also identified that 30 minutes after application, the bees did not avoid direct contact with methyl parathion. Dead bee counts, flight activity, percent return of foragers, and determination of colony composition were used to assess the effects of methyl parathion on the colony dynamics of Apis mellifera. In particular, the combination of dead bee counts, colony composition analysis, and "real time" data, provided an extensive monitoring system that enabled the progression of colony recovery to be followed, and generated information of use for the application of pesticides in the local environment. The analysis of colony composition identified that brood declined in response to decreased worker bees, and that colony recovery was dependent on brood and food reserves within the hive. The foraging activity of honey bee colonies dosed with methyl parathion was lower than that of untreated colonies because their flight activity and percent return rate declined for at least six weeks following methyl parathion application. Keywords: Honey bees, Apis mellifera, Pesticide effects, Methyl parathion, FlightmonitoringItem Pesticide poisoning in Aotearoa New Zealand : a thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Psychology at Massey University, Albany, New Zealand(Massey University, 2015) Torrington, Ciaran DawnAs a nation for over 70 years New Zealand has used unprecedented amounts of pesticides within our workplaces, homes, lands, communities and our National Parks. The health and environmental hazards from exposure to pesticides is now well accepted within Science, but as an illness pesticide poisoning is not well acknowledged within society. Historically pesticide poisoning has been strongly contested by Science, Government, Medicine, Business & Industry and as a result people who have experienced illness from pesticide poisoning frequently encountered denial or de-legitimisation of their illness stories. Despite the long history of pesticide use in this country no study has considered what it is like to experience pesticide poisoning in workplaces in New Zealand, and this study attempts to redress this lack of research effort. A narrative methodology and theories was employed because it explores an illness experience in depth, allows for marginalised stories such as pesticide poisoning to be explored, and is a popular method for exploring health experiences within the Social Sciences. There were sixteen participants interviewed who had experienced pesticide poisoning in their workplaces in New Zealand. This thesis presents three perspectives of narrative theory of the pesticide poisoning experience. The first perspective is of the overarching narrative of pesticide poisoning in New Zealand which shows how the narratives of this study are distinctly automythology quest narratives. The second perspective is how the narratives are structured to give form and meaning, and within this study the narratives are structured within the domains of the Whare Tapa Wha conceptual model of health and the study demonstrates how this can form a foundation for an embodied perspective of health and identity. The third perspective considers the social forces that surround and influence pesticide poisoning illness stories. The participants reconstruct their sense of identity in response to the illness experience and actively advocate for change within their environment. The narratives of this study are surrounded by the powerful authority over knowledge by powerful institutions who sought to deny their experiences of pesticide poisoning.Item Sorption and movement of ionic and non-ionic pesticides in selected soils of New Zealand(Massey University, 1994) Baskaran, SundaramThere is a growing concern about the persistence of pesticide residues in soils and their subsequent movement to groundwater and surface water. Sorption of pesticide by soil particles is one of the key processes affecting the fate of pesticides in soil. The overall objective of this research was to examine the sorption and movement of ionic (2,4-D, atrazine and metsulfuron methyl) and non-ionic (phorate and terbufos) pesticides in a range of allophanic and non-allophanic soil materials of New Zealand. Firstly, the methods of measuring pesticide in the soil solution were evaluated. The results suggested that radiotracer techniques can be used to measure low concentrations of pesticide in the soil solution during sorption studies. Based on this, the sorption and movement of pesticides was examined using 14C-labelled compounds. Complete recovery of 14C pesticide residues in soils was achieved by direct extraction of soils with a scintillation cocktail, which contained an organic solvent. The effect of drying soils on the sorption and leaching of an inorganic anion (phosphate; P) and organic pesticides (2,4-D and phorate) was examined using field-moist, freeze-dried, air-dried and oven-dried soil samples. Compared to field-moist and freeze-dried, both air-drying and oven-drying of soil increased the sorption of P, but decreased the sorption of pesticides. Solubilization of organic carbon during air-drying and oven-drying may have increased the accessibility of P to sorption sites on the mineral surfaces and thereby increased the sorption. In contrast, the addition of water soluble organic carbon bound onto pesticides in solution and decreased the apparent sorption onto the soil; thereby increasing leaching. Pesticide sorption was measured in a range of allophanic and non-allophanic topsoil and subsoil samples using a batch equilibrium technique. In general, pesticide sorption, as measured by the distribution coefficient (Kd), increased with an increase in octanol-water partition coefficient (Kow) of the pesticide and followed the order: terbufos > phorate > 2,4-D > atrazine > metsulfuron methyl. The Kd values increased with increasing organic carbon content of the soils and when the sorption was normalised to organic carbon (Koc) there was less variation in Koc values between the soils. Removal of organic carbon decreased the sorption of pesticides and the effect was more pronounced with non-ionic than with the ionic pesticides. The results suggest that organic carbon is the principal sorbent for non-ionic pesticides, whereas clay is also contributing to the sorption of ionic pesticides. Multiple regression models were developed to predict pesticide sorption based on soil properties. The existing empirical equations based on Kow values gave unsatisfactory predictions of pesticide sorption in the soils examined. The contribution of different particle size fractions of soils to sorption and desorption of pesticides was examined using two soils with contrasting characteristics. The Kd values decreased in the order: clay > silt > sand. Organic carbon accounted for most of the variation in Kd values between the particle size fractions, and the removal of organic carbon decreased the Kd values of the pesticides. Following four successive extractions with 0.01 M CaCl2,65-90% and 22-75% of the initially sorbed ionic and non-ionic pesticides, respectively were released from the particle size fractions. Greater amounts of pesticides were released from the soil fractions from which organic carbon had been removed than from natural soil fractions and the difference was greater for the non-ionic than the ionic pesticides. Experiments were conducted to examine the effects of different sources of added carbon (peat, sludge, mushroom compost, pig manure and poultry manure), and dissolved organic carbon (DOC) on the sorption and movement of pesticides in soils. Added carbon sources increased the sorption of pesticides and followed the order: peat > sludge > pig manure > mushroom compost > poultry manure. The differences in the effect of carbon addition on the sorption of pesticides may be related to the differences in their effect on DOC and pH of the soil. Premixing DOC with the pesticide solutions decreased the pesticide sorption whereas premixing DOC with soil increased the pesticide sorption. Column studies showed that pesticide mobility was enhanced by the presence of DOC. Column leaching experiments were conducted to examine the movement of pesticides through repacked soil cores (step-function and pulse inputs) and intact cores (step-function input) using two soils with different pesticide sorption capacities. In repacked soil columns, the step-function experiments showed a symmetrical breakthrough curve (BTC) for a non-sorbed solute (3H20) with a sigmoidal shape, whereas there was an asymmetrical BTC with extensive tailing for a sorbed solute (2,4-D). In the pulse experiments the leaching of pesticides decreased with an increase in the Kd values and leaching decreased in the order: terbufos > phoratc > 2,4-D > atrazine. The results from the intact core experiments suggested that both the sorbed (2,4-D) and non-sorbed (3H20) solutes move preferentially through macropores such as worm holes and root channels. The convection-dispersion equation (CDE) either with an equilibrium or a bicontinuum non-equilibrium sorption process was used to simulate the measured effluent BTCs obtained by simultaneous displacement of 3H20 and 2,4-D. The CDE with an equilibrium sorption process failed to simulate the BTC for 2,4-D in repacked and intact soil columns; whereas the CDE with a bicontinuum non-equilibrium sorption process provided a good description of the experimental data. Both chemical (intraorganic matter diffusion) and physical (preferential flow) processes are involved in the non-equilibrium sorption during the movement of pesticides in soil.Item Computerised decision support for IPM in New Zealand apple orchards : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand(Massey University, 1997) Stewart, Terrence Mark; Stewart, Terrence MarkNew Zealand apple growers face a dilemma. Export fruit must be of the highest possible quality and free from quarantine pests, but contain increasingly fewer pesticides in lower amounts. The objective of this study was to define and develop decision support tools that may assist in the improved timing and/or reduction of pesticide usage. Fifty randomly selected growers were interviewed in 1992 to determine their pest and disease problems, use of existing IPM methodology and requirements for an improved decision support service. The survey found more then 20% of growers had difficulties with common pests and diseases and many used IPM techniques. Most growers perceived a problem with pesticide residues and pest and disease resistance; they also expected to reduce pesticide usage and better target applications through improved technology in the future. Decision-support using fax and computer technology appeared feasible, subject to support from their advisers. In 1993, twenty-seven Hawkes Bay apple pest and disease control "advisers" were interviewed to determine their role in growers' pest and disease spray decision-making. Horticultural merchant representatives believed they were the main spray decision-maker for 40% of growers, and half of the latter expected the horticultural merchant representatives to know more about the problems in the orchard than they did. Other advisers played an important role in strategic pest and disease advice to the industry. Introducing more complex spray-saving techniques, or taking full advantage of those that already exist, would require many growers either to upskill themselves, or employ consultants to manage their orchards. Basic pest and disease identification and biology, together with knowledge of pesticides were regarded as being essential to manage pests and diseases successfully. Nutritional problems and resistance development were two particular areas where growers required more knowledge. Using the survey findings, a problem tree was created focussing on the question "Was pesticide use excessive in New Zealand apple orchards?". This conceptual model showed that pesticide use was excessive, and better grower education and training may partly alleviate the problem. Using the data from the surveys, two computerised training tools were defined and developed to assist with this solution viz SPRAYCHECK and DIAGNOSIS. SPRAYCHECK was developed to analyse grower black spot fungicide spray programs during the period of primary inoculum release. Using a series of models, incorporating weather data, infection periods and information from growers' spray diaries, grower black spot control decision-making was analysed and a recommended spray schedule for the season in question provided. Model construction revealed a lack of quantitative information on fungicide behaviour and the levels required to fully protect against black spot on apple foliage. A sensitivity analysis showed the rate of cover decay was very important in determining the number of fungicides required to fully protect a crop. DIAGNOSIS is a training aid for teaching pest and disease diagnosis skills to crop protection trainees. This program simulates field and laboratory scenarios, in which trainees must actively seek clues and interpret observations on the cause of plant problems, in apples or other crops. Once trainees have recorded their diagnosis, justification and recommendations for action, they receive an automatic de-briefing on their problem-solving approach. Trainee input is recorded to disk for later tutor assessment. Two decision-support tools were defined, developed and validated. One has been commercialised and the models in the other are likely to be used in an existing Decision Support System. During this exercise, knowledge was gained regarding the New Zealand apple industry in Hawkes Bay, in particular the close relationship between the growers, and horticultural merchant field representatives and their advisers. This relationship could either help or hinder IPM and improved decision support in the future