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    Saving and social functions of cattle in smallholder livelihoods : a multiple case study of cattle management in NTB, Indonesia : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Agricultural Systems and Environment at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2021) Yanuartati, Baiq Yulfia Elsadewi
    In Indonesia and internationally, market-led rural development initiatives seek to transition smallholder farmers from current farming practices to those driven by market requirements. Expected outcomes from these often single product focussed initiatives are often not reached. This is the case in Eastern Indonesia where smallholder cattle farming and beef production is the target of market-led rural development initiatives that have not to date matched expected outcomes. This thesis answers the research question: What shapes smallholder farmers’ management of cattle in NTB Indonesia and why? In so doing the complex dynamics that influence the management of one enterprise that is a part of a multiple interlinked livelihood is illustrated, and the reasons why single enterprise market led initiatives may need to be revised is made clear. The sustainable livelihood framework and concepts of functions and attributes of livelihood assets and activities guided this research. A case study of two social groupings was conducted in the Nusa Tenggara Barat (NTB) Province, East Indonesia. Primary data was collected through in-depth semi-structured interviews supported by documents. Data was analysed and interpreted using qualitative data analysis. Management of cattle by smallholders constituted decisions around ownership, care, buying, selling, and retaining of cattle, along with nutrition, healthcare, and mating. Smallholder management was dominated by cattle being primarily viewed as a form of saving rather than a source of household food or income. Cattle fulfilled a complementary function to other smallholder enterprises and household needs and were also significantly shaped by the significance of cattle to social and cultural norms that differ in nuanced ways across social groups living in the same location. The drivers for cattle management were not primarily market-led and the market dynamics around cattle reflected and reinforced the role of cattle in smallholders’ livelihoods. How smallholders manage an asset or an activity is evidenced in this research to be shaped by not only the function fulfilled by that asset, but also by that asset’s relationship to other assets and their functions in the livelihood. This research argues that market-led initiatives that focus on a single enterprise will continue to fall short until greater consideration as to the place of that enterprise in smallholders’ livelihood is considered in designing and implementing initiatives.
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    The role of off-farm income in sustaining households in rural Nepal : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Applied Science in Rural Development at Massey University
    (Massey University, 1999) Kayastha, Piush
    Stagnant agricultural productivity and low returns in farming have led rural residents to look for opportunities to earn income from off-farm sources. This research examined the role of off-farm income in sustaining households in rural Nepal, and identified factors associated with off-farm employment and income. One Village Development Committee (VDC) from two ecologically distinct districts (Dhankuta in the Hill and Morang in the Terai) of eastern Nepal were selected for the study. A participatory rural appraisal (PRA) workshop (n=6), a household survey (n=150) and key informant interviews (n=6) were conducted to gather data for the study. The average income of the households was Rs 33,963 (approximately US$500) per annum. The most prominent sources of income were agriculture in the Hill households, and off-farm activities in the Terai households. Off-farm income, especially wages, was a major source of household income for the poor households in both agro-ecological zones. Income from business/enterprises in the Terai, and remittances in the Hill, were the primary sources of off-farm income for the non-poor households. They were also the main source of cash income for these rural households. Average expenditure in the rural households was Rs 25,797 (US$380) per annum. Off-farm income contributed nearly half of household expenditure. It contributed especially to the purchase of agricultural inputs and materials. The contribution of off-farm income to a household's expenditure decreased as its area of landholding increased. Both farm and off-farm activities were seasonal and counter-cyclic in rural eastern Nepal. Males and females participated on an equal number of days in cropping activities, but females spent more hours per day in caring for livestock. However, males worked more days off-farm than did females, especially in the Hill. Most of the off-farm activities of females were related to agriculture in both agro-ecological zones. Off-farm employment in the Hill was mainly service-related, whereas that in the Terai comprised a mix of service and trade occupations. Low farm incomes in the Hill and the lack of arable land in the Terai were the primary reasons, respectively, why off-farm employment was sought in the study VDCs. Household landholding, household size, ethnicity and the agro-ecological position of the households were established to be the key determinants of household off-farm income and employment. Characteristics of individuals such as gender, education level and ethnicity affected the type of employment taken up. The more educated, males and those belonging to the Chhetri/Brahmin/Newar ethnic group dominated off-farm employment. Policy intervention measures such as the provision of irrigation and skill-based training are recommended to improve the well being of rural women, disadvantaged people's sub- groups and those located away from major employment centres. Market development and reading are also important elements in increasing off-farm income opportunities, and thus household income. Key words: Nepal, off-farm employment, off-farm income, households' sustainability, labour market, and participatory research.
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    The role of Nepali carpet manufacturing industries in alleviating rural poverty : a case study of rural women workers : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Applied Science in Agricultural Systems and Management at Massey University
    (Massey University, 1998) Karki, Sindhu
    In 1996 Nepal had a per capita gross national product of $US200, the fourth lowest in the world. Nepalese rural women, like those in many developing countries, are even poorer than men. Further, their contribution towards household activities remain unrecognised and unmeasured. It is because of poverty that rural women have started to move from subsistence farming to the formal sector in order to better meet their economic needs. Regardless of how much labour women put into the agricultural sector, it has yielded very little cash income. The Nepali carpet manufacturing industry has provided employment for rural women. It is also a significant user of New Zealand crossbred wools. Wages earnt by rural women through the carpet industry contribute to the alleviation of rural poverty by increasing the total annual income of the households in which they reside. The purpose of this study was to determine the socio-economic impact of the carpet manufacturing industries on the well-being of rural women workers. In addition, the benefits of, and limitations to, rural women workers becoming involved in the carpet industries were accessed. Four levels of respondents were interviewed for the study: 5 key informants, 5 focusgroups (n=10) of rural women workers, 36 carpet manufacturers, and 144 rural women workers. The survey data were evaluated relative to a conceptual model developed to explain total annual household income, a proxy variable for rural poverty alleviation. The model included non-economic (social and demographic) and economic characteristics of households. Variables included in a multiple regression (reduced) model collectively explained 50% of the variation in total annual household income. Among all the non-economic and economic characteristics outlined in the conceptual framework, the number of working adults per household was most important in influencing household income. One person increased total annual household income by Rs 15,228 per annum and a 5% increase in total annual income was associated with additional savings by Rs 67.08 per month. It was concluded that the Nepali carpet industries have assisted in alleviating rural poverty amongst rural women through income generation. New Zealand wool exports to Nepal therefore appear to have an indirect positive benefit on rural households by enabling carpet industry expansion. Keywords: Nepal, carpet industries, rural women workers, total annual household income, and rural poverty alleviation. Title: The role of Nepali carpet manufacturing industries in alleviating rural poverty: a case study of rural women workers. Author: Sindhu Karki, 1997. Degree: Master of Applied Science.
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    New roles in civil society : current and potential roles in decentralised decision-making in rural Nepal : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Masters of Philosophy in Development Studies at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2004) Sherpa, Helen Bernadette
    This study attempts to develop a better understanding of the roles civil society plays in rural Nepal. Makawanpur district has a diverse population and villages both remote and close to national highways and urban centres. The study was carried out during a period of political instability and civil war during which the functioning democratic government was replaced by an administration appointed by the King. At the community level an active civil society undertakes a range of roles and responsibilities. The most significant organisations involving large numbers of people were those contributing directly to supporting livelihoods, including dairy cooperatives, savings and credit groups, forest and water user groups. State-controlled sectors such as education and health had weaker participation. Religious and ethnic organisations do not play significant roles while non-government organisations are present and contribute to welfare and development but do not have large memberships Many civil society organisations were "induced" but over time had evolved and developed their own agendas. Roles being undertaken included management of resources and utilities, supporting poverty alleviation and improved livelihoods, participation in decentralised governance and addressing social issues. Microfinance was a powerful motivating factor used both to form and keep groups together. Groups claimed "inclusiveness" but this could not be independently verified in this study. Civil society theory holds that a healthy society balances the Prince (State), Merchant (commercial sector) and Citizen (civil society). Applying and understanding this theory in a rural environment is challenging and raises many questions as to what "balance" would look like. The State presence is small, mostly in the form of schools and health posts, but it controls policies that affect civil society. Organisations felt they had little influence on policy. The commercial sector is also very poorly developed. In this environment, community based civil society organisations undertake many roles. Civil society is complex and can only be viewed in context of the given point in history and specific community power relations. As communities undertake more roles and responsibilities, they will need to be better understood and supported by the development industry if they are to achieve their full potential.
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    Invasive alien species : a threat to sustainable livelihoods in the Pacific? : an assessment of the effects of Wasmannia auropunctata (little fire ant) and Achatina fulica (giant African snail) on rural livelihoods in the Solomon Islands : a dissertation presented in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Development Studies, Massey University, Manawatū, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2016) Stronge, Dean
    Invasive alien species (IAS) are a global phenomenon and are recognised as a driver of environmental change which can affect the well-being of people in a multitude of ways. Despite this, the role of IAS in local livelihoods has received relatively little attention. Influencing all three of the sustainable development pillars (social, economic, environmental), IAS should be recognised as a significant development issue. But they are not. As such, IAS issues are new to many sectors and governments and therefore largely go unseen and un-actioned. Contemporary rural livelihoods in the Solomon Islands are heavily reliant on subsistence/semi-subsistence agriculture. Following a livelihoods’ framework developed for the Solomon Islands, this thesis explores the influence IAS have on rural livelihoods in this country. Using two qualitative case studies, Wasmannia auropunctata (little fire ant) and Achatina fulica (giant African snail), this study investigates how vulnerable/resilient rural livelihoods are to the effects of IAS and the implications IAS have for sustainable development in the Solomon Islands. The effects of IAS on rural livelihoods are complex and at times contradictory. W. auropunctata for the most part is not negatively affecting the dominant livelihood strategy (subsistence/semi-subsistence agriculture) practised in the Solomon Islands. While there are some social impacts associated with W. auropunctata, overall Solomon Island households can be considered resilient to this IAS. Achatina fulica is a different story. This species is negatively affecting the subsistence/semi-subsistence agricultural sector on which so many rural Solomon Island households depend. This has resulted in households implementing negative livelihood diversification measures as they fail to cope or adapt to the snails’ presence. Unlike for W. auropunctata, Solomon Island households have not demonstrated any resilience to A. fulica. Understanding how rural livelihoods are affected by various stressors and adverse events can help to design development policies and interventions geared towards building better lives for all people. This can only occur however, if the full range of shocks are recognised. To date, this is not the case for IAS, and as such, they are still a significant missing component of development policy.
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    The gender dimensions of environmental change : an exploration of the experiences and perceptions of rural men and women in Zimbabwe : a thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Development Studies at Massey University, Manawatu, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2016) Shumba, Dorcas Stellah Tsitsi
    Processes of environmental change have taken place for centuries both as a result of natural variability and anthropogenic forces. As a concept however, environmental change continues to be used narrowly to refer to environmental changes which are biophysical in nature, and mostly those with global precedence. In recent times incidences of environmental change have become more complex as new patterns of change are threatening the livelihoods of those living in developing countries, undoing many development gains. As such, there is an increasing desire to understand the implications of environmental changes, particularly for those whose livelihoods are natural resource dependent, many of whom live in rural areas, and many of whom are poor. Despite this growing interest, rural people and especially the rural poor are little seen or heard; their environmental change experiences are thus misunderstood, and solutions proposed do not take into consideration the local context or experiences. There remains also a normative perspective which positions women as automatically vulnerable to environmental change, specifically vis-à-vis men. In doing so women’s experiences of environmental change are homogenised and men’s experiences are rendered invisible. Drawing on the case of Zimbabwe this study critically considers the experiences and perceptions of rural men and women to environmental change so as to ascertain gendered impacts and differential vulnerabilities. To capture fully the subjective lived experience of both men and women to environmental change, this study lends itself to qualitative research. Thus research methods such as semi-structured interviews, focus group discussions and gender analysis are central to the methodology. In terms of findings, this study argues against looking at environmental change as a technocratic subject accessible only from a global frame and accessed only by a technocratic few, proposing that the people experiencing environmental change at a local level should determine the environmental changes of communal concern. This study also highlights the importance of understanding the vulnerabilities of rural men and women within a well-conceived notion of context, taking into account rural disadvantage resulting from colonialism, and the current Zimbabwean crisis.
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    Rural tourism as a development strategy : case studies from Chile : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Applied Science in Rural Development at Massey University
    (Massey University, 2005) Holmes Cheyre, Luz Ignacia
    In the last ten years Chilean governments have implemented various polices aimed at rural poverty alleviation, focusing initially only on agricultural development and more recently also on non-agricultural development, promoting activities such as rural tourism. While rural tourism has been developed in Chile to some extent, there is still a lack of empirical research on its development and impacts. The aim in doing this study was to overcome this lack of research and guide strategies for rural tourism development initiatives in Chile. To achieve this, a multiple case study involving two communities was undertaken to identify ways in which smallholder farming households can be assisted in diversifying their livelihoods into rural tourism. Data were collected using semi-structured interviews and participatory methods. These data were then analysed using qualitative methods. Households which have diversified into rural tourism are very positive about it. In economic terms rural tourism has allowed them to improve their housing conditions and increase spending on their children's education, and has provided work for women and young people. Rural tourism has also increased women's self-esteem and, importantly, has led people to place a higher value on their cultural traditions. It has also increased environmental awareness and fostered native tree planting at the household level. Rural tourism has also had some negative consequences, such as loss of family privacy, increased noise and increased solid waste problems. The main findings of this research suggest that there are key factors for successful rural tourism development. Therefore, for rural tourism to become a viable strategy for smallholder farming households assistance needs to take into account such things as provision of credit, technical assistance in setting up a rural tourism product to meet tourists' expectations, building stakeholders' capacity in rural tourism and business management, as well as assistance in establishing and managing an association of rural tourism providers. Changes to regulatory frameworks are also required to enable the setting up of rural tourism ventures. Effective cooperation and coordination between tourism operators and rural tourism providers, as well as cultural impact management and solid waste management, are also needed for successful rural tourism development. Key words: rural tourism, rural development, livelihood diversification, Chile.
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    Implementing asset-based community development : a case study from the Philippines : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Philosophy in Development Studies at Massey University
    (Massey University, 2005) Anna, Bona
    Within the alternative development paradigm, needs-based models have been critiqued for the part they play in accentuating local deficiency and thereby increasing dependency on externally-driven development. The asset-based approach to community development (ABCD) has been presented as a capacities-focused alternative, aimed at establishing community-driven development and promoting authentic local empowerment. This thesis presents a case study into ABCD as it has been applied in a developing country context, analysing it in relationship to some of the theoretical premises of the approach and the wider development literature. The research, undertaken on the island of Mindanao in the Philippines, describes how the ABCD model was implemented and adapted to local circumstances. The findings indicate that the ABCD intervention resulted in improvements within the case study community, particularly pertaining to the expansion of community facilities, livelihood choices, household incomes, individual and collective motivation, and community pride. Overall, this study endorses ABCD as an effective approach to development in the developing world, while at the same time highlighting issues associated with its implementation. Questions are also raised regarding three global development themes that emerged in the course of the study, namely the development of capacity, the management of social process and the meaning of empowerment.
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    Internal development : the case of Minginui Forest village : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Philosophy at Massey University
    (Massey University, 2003) Price, Kim
    This is a study of 'Third World Development' in Rural New Zealand. A review of development theory provides this thesis with a base from which to approach 'Third World Development' with 'First World' realities. Recent Government development policy, moving toward establishing sustainable development for local (rural) communities, remains ingrained in neo-liberal economic growth strategy. Through a predominantly qualitative, fieldwork centred case study, the dynamics and impacts of development in relation to the small, isolated, rural New Zealand community of Minginui, in the Te Urewera Ranges, are examined. Historical factors for the community are also documented, particularly the impact of neo-liberal economic reforms initiated by the elected Fourth New Zealand Labour Government in 1984. Research results show that a 'top down' development approach is still active. Historically this approach has led the Minginui community from an active robust village in the 1950s and 1960s as a developing single industry town, to a state of radical underdevelopment in the mid to late 1980s. The migration of the skills based labour (looking elsewhere for employment in a depressed labour market) in the late 1980s left the community to endure an extended period of isolation, marginalisation, social deprivation – in many ways, pure survival. Over time, though, internal catalysts have generated a 'bottom up' participatory approach to development within the community, termed here 'internal development'. But the sustained period of marginalisation and survival (1987 – 2003) has created social and economic barriers that now hamper the development of further relationships with external organisations. In terms of alternative development theory. Minginui's 'internal development', now provides an opportunity for government to review its development policy and strategy. Uncovering an alternative approach, research has outlined the importance of a 'linking agent' that might generate more efficient use and distribution of resource as delivered by government agencies. This may be an approach to development worth researching for the achievement of sustainable livelihoods for rural communities and rebuilding their capacities.
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    Development possibilities and customary land tenure in the Pacific : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Philosophy in Development Studies, Massey University
    (Massey University, 2007) Rockell, Dennis Graham
    In parts of Africa and the Pacific, the majority of land remains in customary tenure, perhaps in modified form. This thesis explores the question of whether it is possible to retain customary land tenure in a development context. Major development agencies such as the World Bank have, at times, placed pressure on developing countries to convert customary land into forms of tenure more compatible with boosting agricultural production. The Vanuatu constitution specified upon the nation's independence in 1980 that all land was to be returned to the custom owners. This thesis investigates how Vanuatu has grappled with the apparently conflicting objectives of customary tenure and economic development. An attempt was made to give the issue maximum possible focus by choosing the West Coast of Tanna Island as the location of study. Here, urbanisation and infrastructural development is attempted in surroundings where the majority of land has never been removed from customary tenure. The very small areas alienated during the colonial period have become the principal localities for such development. Must customary tenure or modernisation triumph, one over the other, or is it possible to achieve some of the benefits of modernisation without betraying the intent of the Vanuatu constitution? The thesis comes to no simple conclusion, but examines closely how this contradiction is unfolding and suggests that there are grounds for optimism, while noting the unrelenting nature of the forces for change.