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The role of Nepali carpet manufacturing industries in alleviating rural poverty : a case study of rural women workers : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Applied Science in Agricultural Systems and Management at Massey University
(Massey University, 1998) Karki, Sindhu
In 1996 Nepal had a per capita gross national product of $US200, the fourth lowest in the world. Nepalese rural women, like those in many developing countries, are even poorer than men. Further, their contribution towards household activities remain unrecognised and unmeasured. It is because of poverty that rural women have started to move from subsistence farming to the formal sector in order to better meet their economic needs. Regardless of how much labour women put into the agricultural sector, it has yielded very little cash income. The Nepali carpet manufacturing industry has provided employment for rural women. It is also a significant user of New Zealand crossbred wools. Wages earnt by rural women through the carpet industry contribute to the alleviation of rural poverty by increasing the total annual income of the households in which they reside. The purpose of this study was to determine the socio-economic impact of the carpet manufacturing industries on the well-being of rural women workers. In addition, the benefits of, and limitations to, rural women workers becoming involved in the carpet industries were accessed. Four levels of respondents were interviewed for the study: 5 key informants, 5 focusgroups (n=10) of rural women workers, 36 carpet manufacturers, and 144 rural women workers. The survey data were evaluated relative to a conceptual model developed to explain total annual household income, a proxy variable for rural poverty alleviation. The model included non-economic (social and demographic) and economic characteristics of households. Variables included in a multiple regression (reduced) model collectively explained 50% of the variation in total annual household income. Among all the non-economic and economic characteristics outlined in the conceptual framework, the number of working adults per household was most important in influencing household income. One person increased total annual household income by Rs 15,228 per annum and a 5% increase in total annual income was associated with additional savings by Rs 67.08 per month. It was concluded that the Nepali carpet industries have assisted in alleviating rural poverty amongst rural women through income generation. New Zealand wool exports to Nepal therefore appear to have an indirect positive benefit on rural households by enabling carpet industry expansion. Keywords: Nepal, carpet industries, rural women workers, total annual household income, and rural poverty alleviation. Title: The role of Nepali carpet manufacturing industries in alleviating rural poverty: a case study of rural women workers. Author: Sindhu Karki, 1997. Degree: Master of Applied Science.
Barriers to rural women's involvement in economic activities : evidence from Shaanxi, China : a dissertation presented in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Economics at Massey University, Manawatu, New Zealand
(Massey University, 2017) Yang, Mei
With China’s fast development in urbanization and agricultural modernization, rural women are one of the most affected yet ignored groups in society. However, strong evidence has shown that women’s active economic participation can not only reduce the likelihood of household poverty, but also improve distributional dynamics within a household. With first-hand data collected from three areas in one province, this research studies rural women’s barriers to economic participation in farming and off-farm employment under the government’s policy of land transfer. It is found that rural women are facing different challenges and have diversified needs and aspirations. There is a mismatch between the training local government offered and what rural women really want. The study of women professional farmers aims at building an updated understanding of rural women within the fast pace of China’s modernization. This research covers some of the critical factors of economic growth, such as the role of geography, gender, history and institutions. The findings provide information to policy makers, researchers and social organizations concerned with the future of rural women, and assist the sustainable implementation of the land transfer policy and gender equality.
Pay and purdah : women and income earning in Bangladesh : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Philosophy in Sociology at Massey University
(Massey University, 1986) Begum, Najmir Nur
The purpose of this study was threefold: first, to identify factors which caused some rural women to obtain paid employment and not others; second, to discover the problems faced by those involved in income earning and third to find out what the economic and social impact had been on the lives of these women and their households. A single major hypothesis, an expression of the sociological approach adopted in this study, provides a continuous theme. It is that economic factors predominate the explanations sought in this thesis, more especially in explaining why women seek income earning and what kind of jobs they prefer. A sample of 158 women of a village, out of a total of 911, was selected on the basis of a systematic stratified random sampling technique and was studied by using social survey and ethnographic methods. Neelganj was one of the poorest villages of Bangladesh. Only a few villagers had agricultural land, the most important means of production in rural areas, the majority were engaged in occupations other than farming. Economic need was found to be the most important reason for women's income earning. It was the expressed reason given by women and their guardians. Inflation, death of the major breadwinner, dowry, divorce, in the absence of social security, aggravated the economic needs of women. Women of all ages were income earners. Widowed, divorced and separated women were more frequent among female income earners. Twenty two women had no male guardians and were the only income earners of their households. A variety of activities was pursued by women. Lack of capital, insufficient orders and seasonal work affected women's income earning. A large number of unemployed women was interested in working, some were desperately in need of money. Lack of job opportunities, shortage of capital and domestic responsibilities were the major reasons for women's unemployment. Though women's income was important and brought economic relief to their households, this did not make much difference to their social status or expectations about women's role in society. Attitudes of villagers were favourable towards women's income earning. Activities which could be done inside the home were preferred for women. Villagers generally were of the opinion that government should be much more active in the field of women's employment.
Household decision-making in rural Nepal : a study of the effects of gender roles and ethnicity : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Applied Science in Rural Development at Massey University
(Massey University, 1999) Devkota, Durga
Gender disparity in household decision-making is common in developing countries. Ethnicity, culture and geographical location also influence decision-making processes in rural communities. Household decision-making processes in central rural Nepal were examined with a primary focus on gender roles and involvement in the context of three distinct ethnic communities--Brahmin/Chhetri, Gurung and Tharu. Three Village Development Committees (VDCs) of the Chitwan district of Nepal were purposively selected for the study. A combination of participatory rural appraisal (n=6), gender analysis (n=6), key informant interviews (n=14) and household socio-economic surveys (n=123) was used to gather information and data for the study. At the household level, men and women were interviewed separately. The results indicated that both men and women consistently carried out certain crop production activities. Other activities were either male or female dominated, but some activities were insensitive to gender and ethnicity. Ethnic variation impacted on gender roles and involvement of household members. For example, both males and females from the Brahmin/Chhetri and Gurung, and all family members from the Tharu, were involved in manure application to farmland. Fertiliser application was carried out by Brahmin/Chhetri and Tharu men. but jointly by the Gurungs. Crop harvesting was mostly completed by all household members, but with a low level of participation by men, and a high level of participation by women for all ethnic groups. Males dominated crop marketing in the Brahmin/Chhetri and Gurung communities, but this was jointly shared by the Tharus. Livestock-related work was primarily within the domain of women, but variation existed in gender roles across the ethnic groups. For example, Brahmin/Chhetri and Gurung men were less involved in grazing and fodder collection, but all members of Tharu households were jointly involved. Women were more involved than men in household management in all three ethnic groups, with the highest level of participation amongst the Tharu women. Decisions were reached by household members through general discussion. In some cases, however, such as in the marketing of large ruminants, the decision was made solely by the men. Household decision-making also depended on the level and source of income. Within the higher income Brahmin/Chhetri households decisions were largely made independently by males; for the lower income Gurung and the Tharu households joint decision-making was more common. Thus, the underlying male dominance in these communities tended to be related to income level. In relatively affluent households, women were largely restricted to household chores and were less involved in decision-making processes. With respect to crop income. the Gurung women exercised control, whereas the Brahmin/Chhetri males, and both men and women for the Tharus, had a dominant influence over such income. For all ethnic groups, men overwhelmingly dominated the access to agricultural and veterinary services, community activities, and off-farm employment opportunities. Rural and agricultural development activities in Nepal were shown not to be gender or ethnically neutral. However, the extent of this varies by activity. Thus, differences in gender and ethnic roles need to be specifically accounted for in rural policy formulation and planning. A pre-project analysis of gender and ethnicity involvement is recommended to provide better local knowledge of these factors before designing and implementing any project or developmental work. Keywords. Household decision-making. gender roles, ethnicity, gender analysis, participatory rural appraisal, Nepal, rural development
Participation of women in development, with particular emphasis on people participation in the Fiji pine forestry sector : a thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the degree of Master of Philosophy ... Development Studies, Massey University
(Massey University, 1993) Fellmann, Felix
The study examines the degree and authenticity of women's and men's participation at four levels of the development arena: The development organisations of Development Assistance Countries (DAC), the New Zealand Development Cooperation Division of the Ministry of External Relations and Trade (MERT), the Fiji Pine Limited and the two participating case study villages of the Fiji Pine project; Vakabull and Tau. The thesis starts with the premise that the degree of participation depends on the question: who controls the central institutions of a given society? For the development organisations of the Development Assistance Countries, strongly positive, significant correlations were seen between the independent variable of the Proportion of Women Parliamentarians and the dependent variables of the UNDP Gender Index, Proportion of GNP spent on Development cooperation and the Proportion of Development Budget spent on Women in Development. These results present strong evidence that a high proportion of women power-holders are influential in improving development solidarity and gender equality at the policy level. Compared to most Development Assistance countries, nominal women's representation in the Ministry of External Relations and Trade of New Zealand's Development Cooperation Division was above average with an increasing number of women in mid-hierarchy positions. Overall, the study of the Development Cooperation Division found a low level of gender awareness and a high variability of conceptual understanding of participation among the survey participants. Within the organisation of Fiji Pine Limited significant inequality was found in regard to women's access to training. Furthermore, as was the case with the Development Cooperation Division, the degree of gender awareness was low and the conceptual understanding of participation highly variable among the survey participants. The village case study found that for women, patriarchy is most strongly pronounced during adolescent, early marriage and the reproduction phase, and that patriarchal control reduced with age. Women were found to participate to a low degree, and in a passive mode in project implementation. While women had access to most of the project's inputs and benefits, they practically never had control over them. Overall, the men and women of Vakabull and Tau villages were participating in a passive mode which was characterised by minimal information flow, little project related knowledge, little project co-responsibility and inadequate conflict solving structures. The study found that women could be more actively involved in the tree nurseries, tree planting and tree weeding in the area of independent contractors. The second avenue for active women's participation was professional women extension workers, forestry managers and project administrators. Overall, the thesis confirmed the view that the degree of participation in development is a function of the importance of the roles played by gender in their society's central institutions.
Patriarchs, paddocks and the personal : five women from the Wharehuia/Te Popo District talk about their lives : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Social Work in the Department of Social Policy and Social Work, Massey University
(Massey University, 1998) Pitt, Lesley Norma
The aim ot this research was to explore and celebrate the daily lived experiences of rural women. The life stories of four women, from the rural district of Wharehuia/Te Popo in central Taranaki, were gathered in unstructured, in-depth interviews. My life story was written and incorporated as data. I spent my childhood and adolescence on my family's sheep and beef farm in the Wharehuia/Te Popo district. Later, as a social work practitioner, I worked in rural and semi rural areas. This thesis was inspired by an awareness that life for women (and men) in these communities was unique and worthy of recognition. The focus of the study is on women. It reflects my gender and identity as a feminist. My feminist values influenced the methodology and theoretical concepts used to add meaning to the narratives. I have included post structural ideas which are of personal interest and relevant to the stories. The five themes used to structure the literature and data are: patriarchy, private and public worlds, women and work, diversity and difference, and power. The participants discussed the way in which patriarchal ideology had influenced their lives, affecting their intimate relationships as well as their public activities. Much of their lives have focused on the domestic realm of home and family; more so for the older two participants. The younger women were more involved in the public world of paid work. All the women worked hard and had diverse work patterns. Power issues had an impact on all aspects of their lives. The respondents talked about the way they used power to which they had access, positively and productively. There is a tension in their stories between wanting to belong and fit in and a recognition of their own uniqueness. This uniqueness reflected the diversity among rural women. The study ends with a consideration of its relevance to social work; the use of story telling, the relationship between theory and practice, and the opportunity provided by the women for practitioners to learn from their stories.
Relationships between female-headed rural micro-enterprises and micro-enterprise assistance providers : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Rural Development at Massey University, New Zealand
(Massey University, 2013) Utto, Grittaya
Although there are financial and other services extensively provided by formal micro-enterprise assistance providers, including micro-finance institutions (MFIs) and government agencies, in order to assist female-headed rural micro-enterprises (female-headed RMEs), there is much evidence to show that these entrepreneurs still seek other services, in particular from moneylenders. Such evidence reflects the need for improvement in the relationship between formal providers and these entrepreneurs. This research aims to explore and understand existing social networks between the counterparts, the tenet underlying relationship developments. The research employs the qualitative approach, principally using purposive sampling and in-depth interview techniques. The case (thirty eight enterprises and six providers) are those operating in Khon Kaen province, Northeast Thailand — its economically poorest region of Thailand. The study found that these entrepreneurs’ social networks were limited but specific. Individual entrepreneurs (IEs) would rather develop relationships with moneylenders and (to a lesser extent) with MFIs. Relationships with government agencies are apparently absent. In contrast, community-based enterprises (CBEs) had strong relationships with government agencies, because, importantly, CBEs are fully supported by these agencies. The study found the establishment of certain CBEs was initiated by government agencies, although community members may not have had their own intentions to do so. The viability of such enterprises is solely dependent on the financial grants provided by the agencies. In order to gain resources for operating enterprises, IEs are willing to become indebted with loans issued by local moneylenders, whilst nearly all members of CBEs will solely apply for further grants from the providers. The members will leave the enterprises, if they become liable for debt incurred after joining a CBE. The research findings highlight that the characteristics of entrepreneurs are key factors affecting their relationship development with the providers. Small-scale activities, such as those of retailers and vendors, chiefly specified their relationships with moneylenders who promptly responded to their financial needs. Meanwhile, micro-entrepreneurs involved in larger scale activities tended to apply for assistance from government departments. The Relationships between female-headed RMEs and micro-enterprise assistance providers findings suggest that the absence of service branches of formal providers, at (or nearby) villages where entrepreneurs reside, could push them to apply for services from moneylenders. Whilst there is limited evidence of gender discrimination, female entrepreneurs prefer not to develop relationships with formal providers because they perceive that the application procedure for the formal providers is time-consuming. The entrepreneurs, accordingly, leave the application for their husbands to deal with. The female entrepreneurs would rather seek loans from the moneylenders, who, typically, provide quick services with minimal document requirements. The present work provides insights into social networks, in addition to relationship development and the key factors affecting relationships. These insights could be beneficial in assisting practitioners and providers, when they design and implement services consistent with the needs of female-headed RMEs.
Coping with floods : the experience of rural women in Bangladesh : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at Massey University
(Massey University, 1995) Begum, Mahbuba; Begum, Mahbuba
This study focuses on how rural women in Bangladesh, who live in the poorest sector of one of the poorest countries in the world, cope with floods. It seeks to explain the principal factors structuring their responses. It addresses several related questions: how do women perceive and experience floods? What problems do they face and how do they respond to them? Arc they merely the passive victims of floods or do they play an active role in protecting their households? Do all women use the same coping strategies? Are the major parameters of rural society changed as a consequence of the way in which women cope with floods? In responding to these questions a sociological perspective is adopted but not to the exclusion of other approaches. However, it is the social and sociological aspects of the phenomena being explored which are of most concern to the author. The occurrence of floods in Bangladesh is as old as its history but over the last 40 years (1954-1995) the problem has become greatly aggravated and is now one of the main concerns of most rural households, life in which is precarious even in non-flood conditions. These problems affect women more severely than men because of the wider range of responsibilities that they have for their households and the fact that those responsibilities keep them tied to their households more strictly and more effectively than those of male members. Those responsibilities include food processing and cooking, cleaning, collecting water and fuel, bearing and rearing children, looking after livestock and income generation, all of which become much more difficult to perform under flood conditions. Despite this heavy burden, which women bear in extremely difficult circumstances, they demonstrate considerable fortitude and ingenuity in their attempts to maintain the livelihoods of their households. Explanation of these phenomena is sought in the economic, cultural and political structure of the country. Factors stressed in this study are the male-dominated structures of a predominantly conservative and Muslim society; the dominance of parda in the sub-culture of women and the position of women within the socio-economic context of their households.
Adult literacy and women's empowerment : exploring the contribution of a non-formal adult literacy programme to women's empowerment in Aileu, Timor Leste : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Philosophy in Development Studies at Massey University, Albany, Manawatu [i.e. Manawatu], New Zealand
(Massey University, 2010) Kotsapas, Alicia
While the majority of studies concerning education in Timor Leste have focused on formal schooling, this thesis seeks to explore the contribution of non-formal adult literacy programmes (NFALP) to rural women’s empowerment in Aileu, Timor Leste by examining the challenges that rural women face in their daily lives, whether their participation in the NFALP and literacy acquisition has assisted them with overcoming these challenges and brought benefits to their lives, and if this has led to their empowerment. The study adopts a gender perspective and focuses on the individual voices of rural adult women in considering how NFALPs are impacting on rural women’s lives, and provides a space for their voice, one which has been marginalised in the literature so far, to be heard. The study examines three important empowerment frameworks presented by Rowlands (1995), Kabeer (1999) and Stromquist (1993) which are relevant to research concerning women and education. The study employs a qualitative feminist methodology in seeking an in-depth understanding of the reality and lived experience of rural women participating in the programme through semi-structured interviews with literacy programme participants and key informants during a period of fieldwork in Timor Leste The research findings reveal that the motivation behind women’s participation in a NFALP is directly related to addressing their practical gender needs, rather than their strategic gender needs, which revolve around reproductive tasks and unpaid productive work. The study found that NFALP offers rural women who missed out on formal schooling another opportunity to achieve an education, however, yet the heavy burden of women’s traditional reproductive roles severely restricts their ability to regularly attend NFALP. Finally, the research found that rural women did experience empowerment through their participation in the NFALP, the most common empowerment dimension experienced being the personal (Rowlands, 1995) or psychological dimension (Stromquist, 1993) of empowerment.
Integrating gender into planning, management and implementation of rural energy technologies : the perspectives of women in Nepal : a thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Development Studies, School of People Environment and Planning at Massey University, New Zealand
(Massey University, 2004) Mahat, Ishara
Women in rural Nepal are heavily involved in management of energy resources particularly biomass, which constitute the main form of rural energy as is the case in most developing countries. Women's most time consuming activities in rural areas of Nepal are cooking, collecting firewood, and processing grain, all of which are directly associated with the rural energy system. Despite women's strategic interests in improved rural energy in Nepal, energy planners (normally male) rarely consider women's roles, needs, and priorities when planning any interventions on rural energy. This study targeted at rural women in the mid hill region of Nepal, has examined the socio-economic implications of alternative energy technologies (AETs) especially in terms of saving women's labor and time and increasing opportunities for them to participate in social and economic activities. The analysis indicates that there is a positive implication of AETs on women's workload especially with access to the micro hydro mills available in the villages. In general, women have been able to save their labor and time in collecting firewood, and milling activities, although this is not always apparent due to women using the saved time for other household chores. However, AETs were rarely used for promoting end use activities (such as, energy based small cottage industries) in order to enhance women's socio-economic status. In addition, AETs had rather limited coverage and were not able to fulfill the energy demands of all rural households. There were also limitations in the adoption of such technologies mainly due to financial, technical, and social problems. For instance, the solar photovoltaic system and biogas plants were still costly for the poorest households even with subsidies. Consequently, socio-economic gaps within small communities widened and became highly visible with access to such technologies. Women's participation was mainly in terms of their involvement in community organizations (COs) and representation in Village Energy Committees (VECs) rather than their active participation in planning and decision-making processes with regard to AETs. Nevertheless, women were actively involved in providing labor in construction work relating to AETs, and creating and mobilizing saving funds as a means to be involved in small income generating activities associated with AETs. This study ultimately suggests a framework for increasing women's participation in rural energy plans and programs at local and national level, and develops policy measures to enable integration of gender into energy planning and policies. This would help to address practical and strategic gender needs in terms of fulfilling basic energy needs managed by women, and providing them with opportunities to be involved in some social and economic activities, which lead towards the self-enhancement of women.

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