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    "Values that are to be safeguarded" : meeting the challenge of improving the health of waterways on agricultural land : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Ecology at Massey University, Manawatū, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2019) Prickett, Miriama Rebecca
    Aotearoa New Zealand’s waterways are valued for many reasons. However, nationally, their health has been declining. Animal agriculture is a significant contributor to this decline. The country’s largest farm, Molesworth Station, is managed to safeguard its cultural, conservation, recreation, historical and farming values. For this reason, managers of the station’s farming operation sought information on possible impacts of current animal agriculture on the habitat and water quality of Molesworth’s streams and rivers, and recommendations on monitoring and improving the health of its waterways over time. This thesis found the health of streams and rivers on Molesworth to be good. It provides recommendations on monitoring and management, including areas where action could be taken to address the likely impacts of fine deposited sediment on waterways. Given both the scale of Aotearoa New Zealand’s animal agriculture, and its impact on freshwater quality and habitat, improving the health of waterways will require an increase in pro-environmental behaviour from farmers and will need to be sustained. This thesis also looks beyond Molesworth Station to investigate the influence of basic human values on pro- environmental behaviour in Aotearoa New Zealand’s agricultural sector. It suggests that prioritisation and priming of certain basic human values are likely to suppress pro- environmental behaviour and posits that targeted values-sensitive communication could play a role in encouraging and increasing pro-environmental behaviour to meet the challenge of improving the health of waterways on agricultural land.
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    Effects of disturbance and nutrient regimes on freshwater invertebrate community structure : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Ecology at Massey University, Manawatū, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2018) Taylor, Joanna Marie
    Freshwater ecosystems globally are under threat from anthropogenically driven impacts including water abstraction for drinking and agriculture, exotic species invasion, eutrophication, channelization and destruction or modification of habitat. In New Zealand, eutrophication from nutrient enrichment is one of the most pervasive and detrimental impacts. High nutrient levels in waterways is detrimental not only to the species that inhabit them, but can also affect drinking and irrigation water for humans and result in loss of recreational and aesthetic values. Excess nitrogen and phosphorus can cause large amounts of periphyton to grow which in turn can impact water quality and the community composition of stream macroinvertebrates. Macroinvertebrate communities are also strongly affected by floods. More or less frequent flooding can cause changes in composition of stream invertebrate communities. Streams are usually affected by multiple stressors but the effect of those stressors are often considered in isolation for management. As macroinvertebrates are often used as indicators of ecosystem health, it is important to assess how different stressors interact and how these impacts those communities. In this study, macroinvertebrate communities in four Taranaki streams were sampled to assess the interactive effects of nutrient enrichment and flood regime. Nutrient enrichment resulted in invertebrate communities changing markedly between upstream and downstream sites. All four streams had a similar composition at the upstream sites whereas downstream sites in most streams were very different. In two of the streams with lower disturbance regimes, nutrients were the most important driver of invertebrate community composition. In the two streams with a higher disturbance regime, the invertebrate communities were more similar between upstream and downstream sites indicating that flooding was overriding the effects of nutrient enrichment as the most important driver of community composition.
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    Seasonal and year to year variation in the macroinvertebrate communities of New Zealand forest streams : a thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Ecology at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2002) Minchin, Stephen Mark
    The bed movement of 42 streams in the Ruahine Forest Park, Urewera National Park, and Cass-Craigiebum region was predicted from each stream's channel and catchment characteristics. While a stepwise regression was relatively unsuccessful in predicting tracer particle movement, an artificial neural network analysis achieved strong correlations with measured tracer particle data. Forty-three streams in the Ruahine and Tararua Forest Parks were sampled in the summers of 1996 and 2001, and the macroinvertebrate communities compared. Changes in community structure between the two surveys did not correlate with any measured environmental characteristics including stream bed movement and change in periphyton biomass. MCI scores changed by a mean of 12.8 points between the two surveys, and the number of sites attaining an MCI score indicative of a 'pristine' stream dropped from 40 to 29. This appears to be related to a change in stream temperature, with streams that were cooler in 2001 than in 1996 showing an increase in MCI, while those which were warmer showed a decrease. Changes such as these could have a marked effect on biomonitoring programmes that use reference sites similar to these streams. In both 1996 and 2001, a greater number of taxa were collected from sites with more periphyton - taxon richness appears to asymptote at chlorophyll a concentrations greater than 5 μg/cm² Twelve streams within the Ruahine Forest Park were sampled every three months between June 2000 and May 2001. Both periphyton biomass and macroinvertebrate taxon richness tended to decrease with bed movement. While macroinvertebrate community structure showed marked changes over the study period, these changes were not linked to bed movement or variation in periphyton level. The seasonal changes observed in these streams are not significantly different to the changes seen between the summers of 1996 and 2001 - community structure was no more stable between two summers separated by five years than it was between the seasons of a single year. Eight artificial channels were laid on the bed of the Turitea Stream. At the onset of the experiment, half of the channels contained neither invertebrates nor periphyton cover, while the other half had no invertebrates but an initial periphyton layer. Drift samples indicate that approximately one in four drifting invertebrates colonised the channels during the 14 day study period, with benthic taxon richness reaching a peak after only four days. Colonisation was not affected by periphyton biomass. Some of the less common taxa that were present in the water column did not colonise the channels within 14 days.
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    The influence of nutrient concentration on algal biomass and invertebrate communities in agricultural streams : a thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Ecology at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2003) Hamer, Mark Peter
    High nutrient inputs have generally been identified as responsible for the degradation of lowland rivers and lakes in New Zealand and internationally. Nutrients have been shown to influence algal community growth rate and composition. In turn algae can have strong effects on invertebrate communities (density, richness, composition, distribution, structure and function). This study investigates the effect of nutrients on algal biomass and higher trophic levels to determine the importance of nutrient loading on stream ecosystems. Twenty six agricultural streams were surveyed in the Manawatu region in February, 2002. Algal biomass was greater in streams with high nitrate levels. Invertebrate communities differed in terms of the quantitative macroinvertebrate community index (QMCI), Ephcmeroptera, Plecoptera and Trichoptera (EPT) individuals and taxa between sites with high and low algal biomass. Regression analysis was used to relate the "quality" of the invertebrate community to stream algal biomass. At 13.μg/cm2 of chlorophyll a there was a dramatic shift in invertebrate community composition to more pollution tolerant taxa. In the Hawke's Ray region nutrient concentration was experimentally increased in 3 low order streams in the summer of 2002/2003. Increased nutrient concentration did not affect stream algal biomass. There were however changes in the proportions of EPT in the enriched community. I propose that these changes in EPT were in response to increased algal growth rates and constrained any increase in algal biomass. Therefore changes in landuse intensity may affect invertebrate community structure.
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    Multiple scales of biological variability in New Zealand streams : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Ecology at Massey University, Manawatū, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2016) Jayasuriya
    Stream fish communities in Taranaki, New Zealand, were studied for the patterns and drivers of their spatial ecology. The study was focused on three main themes: a) complementarity between geography and landuse in driving regional distribution patterns of stream fish, b) the impact of agriculture on community composition, structure and variability of fish and invertebrates, and c) concordance among environmental distance and community dissimilarities of stream fish and invertebrates. Stream sampling and data collection for fish was conducted at regional scale using 96 sites distributed in the protected forest (44 sites) of Egmont National Park in Taranaki, and in surrounding farmlands (52 sites). Local scale sampling for fish and invertebrates was carried out at 15 stream sites in pasture (8 sites) and in adjacent forest (7 sites). Environmental data of geography, landuse and local habitat description were also gathered concurrently to biological sampling. The regional scale survey reported fifteen fish species, dominated by longfin eels (Anguilla dieffenbachia), redfin bullies (Gobiomorphus huttoni) and koaro (Galaxias brevipinnis), while 12 fish species and 69 different invertebrate taxa were recorded from the 15 sites at local scale. Regional scale spatial patterns of fish were mainly driven by landuse pattern. Catchment landuse (characterised by percentage cover of farming/native forest) effectively partitioned the stream fish community structure in Taranaki. Within each level of catchment landuse (farming), abundance and richness of fish species were negatively correlated with the altitude. Moreover, the upstream slope in high elevations and intensive farming downstream limited the distribution of stream fish across the region. Fish community composition differed significantly but weakly between forest and pasture in the immediate proximity. The dissimilarity of fish communities between forest and pasture increased from regional to local scale, and a similar result was found with stream invertebrate dissimilarity at the local scale. Stream communities (fish and invertebrates) were equally variable among streams between the two land use classes both at regional and local scales. Although the land use difference did not affect within-stream variability of fish, invertebrate communities were less variable within a pasture stream. Trends in in-stream variability of invertebrates were influenced mainly by altitude, stream morphology, pH, and riparian native cover. In concordance analysis, Mantel and Procrustes tests were used to compare community matrices of fish and invertebrates and the environmental distance between stream sites. The spatial patterns of fish and invertebrates were significantly concordant with each other among the 15 streams at the local scale. Nevertheless, community concordance decreased with lower spatial scales, and the two communities were not concordant at local sites within a given stream. Agriculture had a negative impact on the concordance between fish and invertebrates among streams, and none of the communities correlated with the overall environmental distance between agricultural streams. Community concordance between fish and invertebrates was consistently higher than the community-environment links, and lower trophic level (invertebrates) linked to their environment more closely than the upper trophic level (fish). The overall results suggest a bottom-up control of the communities through the stream food web. Finally, to inform the regional management and conservation decision, stream sites were partitioned according to the most important bioenvironmental constraints. The ecological similarity was measured by geography, land use pattern and the abundances of influential native fish species within the region, and the streams were clustered into seven distinct zones, using the method of affinity propagation. Interestingly, the dichotomy in proximal land use was not generally represented between zones, and the species diversity gradients were not significantly different across the zonal stream clusters. The average elevation of a given zone did not influence the community variability, while upstream pasture significantly homogenised fish communities between streams within a zone. Nonetheless the zones were based on river-system connectivity and geographical proximity. This study showed separate effects of confounding geography (altitude) and landuse on stream fish community structure, which has not explicitly been explored by previous studies. Studies with a simultaneous focus on multiple biological (e.g. fish and invertebrates) and environmental (e.g. geography, landuse, stream morphology) scales in varying spatial scales are not common in freshwater ecology. Therefore, this study has a great contribution to the understanding of the spatial ecology of stream communities linked with the control of geography, landuse, environment and likely biological interactions between fish and invertebrates.
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    'Rites of passage' : biotic and abiotic influences on freshwater fish migration : a thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Ecology at Massey University
    (Massey University, 2008) Atkinson, Nicola Kate
    Assessing the impacts of barriers to native fish migration has in the past been largely subjective due to the difficulties involved in determining whether a species absence upstream of a potential migration barrier is due to a restriction in passage or a consequence of its natural distribution. Now with the increased availability of GIS data and new modelling techniques, accurate models of species occurrences have the potential to be used in the assessment of migration barriers. Consequently, this study uses a predictive model of species occurrence to accurately quantify the passage restrictions caused by 28 structures in the Wellington Region. Comparisons were made between the species observed to be present upstream of a structure and what would be expected to be there in the absence of a barrier. In addition, impacts were quantified in terms of amount of native fish habitat lost and combined with five other metrics to create an index that gauges the priority each structure has for remediation. The application of this method revealed its potential to be used in management decisions but highlighted its reliance on a large amount of data for it to draw statistically robust conclusions. An assessment of the effectiveness of three fish passes was also carried out but revealed that none were successful in facilitating passage. The ability of bluegill bullies (Gobiomorphus hubbsi) to detect and respond to the odour of conspecific fish upstream under neutrally odoured (rainwater) and naturally odoured (stream water) conditions was tested. Bluegill bullies were presented with a choice of two flows of water to move into, one of which contained the odour of conspecific fish. Bluegill bullies displayed a concentration-dependent reaction under neutral water conditions, where they were attracted to low concentrations of conspecific odour but repelled by high concentrations of odour. This result was not consistent under naturally odoured water conditions, where no attraction towards conspecific odour occurred at low odour concentrations and only a weak avoidance of odour occurred at high concentrations. The differences revealed between natural and neutral water trials suggests the use of habitat odours over conspecific odours and casts doubt on previous studies only conducted under neutral conditions. The longitudinal size distribution of two populations of bluegill bully from Hutt and Rakaia Rivers and one population of torrentfish from Rakaia River was examined. All populations had longitudinal trajectories that showed some increase in size with distance upstream. This increase in size primarily reflects the influence of amphidromous life styles, where juveniles diffuse upstream from the sea. However, a quantile regression analysis revealed differences in growth and migration rate between the two bluegill bully populations; bluegill bullies from Rakaia River grew at a slower rate and showed variation in migration rate within their population that was not evident in the Hutt River population. Null models were also generated for each population to test for the presence of all size classes of fish in the lower reaches of each river. Both bluegill bully populations showed a significant absence of the largest size classes in the lower reaches and differed significantly from the null models. This difference suggests that all individual bluegill bullies continuously move upstream throughout their lives. In comparison, the size distribution of torrentfish closely resembled the null model, indicating that some individuals did not migrate upstream to the same extent as others. The differences revealed between the two bluegill bully populations may be explained through a combination of differences in competition and stability between the Hutt and Rakaia River, while the difference between bluegill bully and torrentfish distributions may be a consequence of different reproductive strategies.
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    Leaf litter decomposition and stream macroinvertebrate communities of the Central Volcanic Plateau : the effects of landuse : a thesis presented in fulfilment for the degree of Masters of Science in Ecology at Massey University
    (Massey University, 2000) Tubby, Christopher Jon
    The effects of landuse on benthic macroinvertebrate community structure was assessed in 35 streams draining four different landuse activities (native (Beech and Broadleaf/Podocarp) forest, exotic (Pinus radiata) forest, hill country pasture and scrubland) around Lake Taupo, North Island, New Zealand, between January and March 1997. Ephemerotera (mainly Deleatidium sp.) were abundant in all landuse types. Diptera (Chironomidae), Coleoptera (Elmidae) and Trichoptera (Pycnocentrodes aureola) dominated invertebrate communities in open canopy pasture streams, where higher algal biomass existed. Native forest and exotic forest stream communities were considerably different. Native forest streams had higher water velocities, substrate stability and overhead cover, whereas exotic forest streams had low bed stability and high sand levels. In response to the higher sand levels in exotic streams, invertebrate communities had higher abundance of molluscs (Potamopyrgus antipodarum) and Coleoptera (Elmidae). Native stream communities were dominated by Ephemeroptera (Deleatidium sp. and Colorburiscus humeralis), Coleoptera (Elmidae) and Trichoptera (Aoteapsyche colonica). Landuse effects on invertebrates are different throughout New Zealand and will depend on local conditions, especially geology. In December 1997 and January 1998, leaf litter decomposition and invertebrate colonisation were examined in 12 streams draining four different landuse activities around Lake Taupo. Mesh leaf tubes (0.2mm) and mesh leaf bags (3mm) containing dried Rangiora (Brachyglottis repanda) leaves were immersed into streams draining the four landuse types. Leaf tubes and bags were removed from streams after 14 days, 28 days and 42 days to measure the percentage of leaf weight lost from each leaf tube and bag and to assess the invertebrate colonisation of the leaf litter bags. Open canopy streams processed leaf litter in the tubes faster than closed canopy streams and it is likely that the increased temperatures and nutrient levels in open streams contributed to this phenomenon. Leaf bags were decomposed more rapidly in exotic streams where invertebrate densities in bags were highest among the landuse types. The low abundance of quality food available in exotic sites is likely to have contributed to the higher numbers of invertebrates feeding on the limited food resource. Invertebrate communities in all landuse types were distinctly different from each other, in contrast to benthic communities which were more similar. It appears that landuse does affect invertebrate communities in leaf bags, and this in turn influences leaf litter decomposition rates. Keywords: abundance, algal biomass, benthic communities, exotic forest, hill country pasture, invertebrate colonisation, leaf litter decomposition, macroinvertebrate community structure, mesh bags, mesh tubes, native forest, percentage weight loss, scrubland.
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    An evaluation of the ecology and riparian management of the south branch of the Whareroa Stream, Paekakariki : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Applied Science in Natural Resource Management at Massey University
    (Massey University, 2008) Palmer, Karen Thelma
    Whareroa Farm, Mackays Crossing, Paekakariki, was bought by the Department of Conservation in 2005. The goal was to effect the restoration of a corridor for flora and fauna from the Akatarawa Forest in the east to Queen Elizabeth Park and the sea in the west. The south branch of the Whareroa Stream, which arises as a series of tributaries from a ridge 272m above sea level, traverses Whareroa Farm and the adjacent Queen Elizabeth Park. It was thought likely that the stream had been severely affected ecologically during a century of cattle and sheep farming, though the degree to which the ecological degradation had occurred was unknown. Obvious deforestation and land use changes suggested that, in concert with many other New Zealand hill country farms, the ecological changes would be significant. To establish and quantify the degree of degradation, the Auckland Regional Council (ARC) Stream Environment Valuation (SEV) protocol was applied to the Whareroa Stream and its tributaries. Five sites were selected for valuation, varying from open pasture to bush covered and open parkland. The resulting SEV scores showed losses of ecological value ranging from 32% to 46% across the sites. The Macroinvertebrate Community Index (MCI) and the fish Index of Biological Integrity (IBI) were measured at each site. Results indicated that aquatic habitats were unable to sustain adequate assemblages at four of the five sites. The valuations of the riparian zones at each site used the River Environment Classification (REC) and Riparian Management Classification (RMC) protocols. The results indicated that current riparian characteristics showed poor to absent effective riparian zones from the headwaters to the sea at all sites. Riparian zones are pivotal to the provision of stream ecological integrity and are responsible for maintaining the longitudinal, lateral and vertical connectivity between a stream, its network and its surrounding land. The loss of in-stream organic matter from lack of riparian vegetation together with the loss of effective temperature control from lack of shade, impacts negatively on the habitats for macroinvertebrates and fish. This was highlighted in the Whareroa Stream network. While the SEV and RMC evaluations showed that, with best practice management plans, there was great potential for improvement of the Whareroa Stream ecology, any riparian restoration would require sympathetic and improved fencing, withdrawal of stock from stream access and the retirement of headwater land from pastoral use. The loss of ecological integrity that occurs as a result of prolonged land use changes from forest to agriculture is well illustrated by the situation in the south branch of the Whareroa Stream and its tributaries.
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    The impact of the closure and decommissioning of the Wainuiomata Waste Water Treatment Plant on the water quality of the Wainuiomata River : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Philosophy in Water Quality at Massey University
    (Massey University, 2004) De Silva, Josephine
    The quality of the Wainuiomata River (particularly downstream of the Wainuiomata Waste Water Treatment Plant) has been affected over the years (e.g. eutrophication) by a number of contaminants, such as nutrients and faecal bacteria. The main source of these contaminants has been the treated effluent discharged into the river from the Wainuiomata Waste Water Treatment Plant (WWTP). The WWTP has been discharging treated effluent into the river since the 1950's. This sewage treatment plant was decommissioned in November 2001 and is now used solely as a pumping station. Sewage from Wainuiomata is now piped over to the new sewage treatment plant in Seaview. This research project aimed to examine the impact of the WWTP closure on the water quality of the Wainuiomata River. Water samples were collected from a number of selected sites over a period of three months: January 2003 to March 2003, above and below the WWTP site. For this particular study, the microbiological, chemical (nutrients) and biological parameters were assessed as follows: Escherichia coli and total coliforms (microbiological) dissolved reactive phosphorus (DRP), nitrate nitrogen and ammoniacal nitrogen (chemical) and periphyton (biological) for biomass and taxa identification. The results for each of the above parameters sites were compared with historical data obtained from Greater Wellington Regional Council (2003). Overall this research has shown that the closure of the WWTP has impacted on the J5 site (Golf Course), which is downstream of the WWTP, in a number of ways. The chemical indicator levels (NO3-N, NH4-N and DRP) have dropped significantly; periphyton was still in abundance at site J5 (no real improvement seen) and the median level of the microbiological indicator, E.coli has reduced. However, site J5 on a number of occasions, did not comply with the Microbiological Water Quality Guidelines for Marine and Freshwater Recreational Areas (2003). Sites sampled upstream of the WWTP, particularly the tributary sites (Black Creek and Wainuiomata Stream), also did not comply with the guidelines on a number of occasions. This is a concern, as the public are known to swim near where these tributaries enter the Wainuiomata River. The effects of storm water or land runoff may have affected the results on two occasions (when there had been rainfall) however, on all other occasions where high E.coli levels were observed, the effects of storm water and runoff would have been minimal, as there had been very little rain. The Wainuiomata River is used for recreational activities such as swimming, canoeing and fishing; therefore an important resource. Any water quality concerns (namely, E.coli levels and periphyton proliferation), therefore need to be monitored by the Greater Wellington Regional Council and actions taken to eliminate these concerns.
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    The influence of hydrology and landscape on stream invertebrate communities of the Whanganui Catchment, New Zealand : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Philosophy in Ecology at Massey University
    (Massey University, 2002) Lemke, Dawn
    This study examines the effect of the hydrological regime and landscape characteristics on benthic stream macroinvertebrate communities in the Whanganui Catchment, New Zealand, using a variety of statistical techniques. A total of 36 hydrological variables were considered. Thirteen of these were calculated from long-term flow and rainfall records, and interpolated using geographic information systems (GIS) to cover the area of interest. Ten hydrological variables were derived from topographical maps though GIS, with a further 13 hydrological variables determined from rainfall information relating to the timing since the last event. Catchment and riparian landscape variables (land cover, geology and soil type) were derived from New Zealand's land classification database and land resource inventory using GIS. Community structure was measured using an ordination, species richness, total number of animals and the densities of 22 common taxa. Biological data was also quantified with a variety of diversity and water quality indices including Simpson's, Margalef's and Macroinvertebrate Community Index. Individual links between biological and all environmental data were explored through Pearson's correlations. Multiple regression was used to examine the combination of the environmental variables that were best in determining individual characteristics of community structure. Canonical correlation was utilized to assess overall concurrent patterns between landscape and biotic data. Stepwise logistic regression and classification trees were used to explore occurrence of the 22 selected taxa in relation to environmental variables. Of the modelling techniques assessed for prediction of taxa occurrence classification trees gave as good or better predictions than the other models and tended to produce simpler models, suggesting that it is probably a better modelling technique for this data. Of the environmental variables, FRE3 (number of flood events per year over 3 times the medium flow) was the best individual predictor of community structure, showing the greatest number of links and strongest relationships with the biotic variables. The other hydrological variables of river size and specific discharge also had numerous individual correlations, and as they are easier to calculate they may be more appropriate for use in ecological studies. Time since the last event was another important component in determining invertebrate community structure. Hydrological characteristics dominated the explanatory variables in many of the models representing water quality and diversity indices, suggesting that indices that measure water quality and diversity may only be comparable over areas with similar hydrological regimes. Landscape variables, as measured by this study, were also shown to influence invertebrate community structure but to a lesser extent than hydrology. All indices and ordinations show significant multiple regressions with landscape variables with 12 out of the 22 taxa models being highly significant. Canonical correlations of landscape variables showed catchment scale variables to be more predictive of community structure than riparian scale variables. When separating landscape variables into land cover and geology no clear pattern of dominance was shown.