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    Impacts of shocks and coping strategies of vegetable farm households in Sri Lanka during COVID-19 pandemic : a dissertation presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Agriculture and Rural Development at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2024-11-22) Rathnayake, Sanduni Anuththara Kumari
    Over time, smallholders in developing countries, including those in Sri Lanka, face a variety of shocks and develop coping strategies in response. The COVID-19 pandemic resulted in a novel shock to many farm households in developing countries, often negatively impacting their livelihoods. This exploratory qualitative case study provides a comprehensive study on the impact of the pandemic on Sri Lankan smallholder vegetable farm households and their coping strategies. Data were collected from vegetable farm households and key informants in Nuwaraeliya and Kandy districts, mainly using the interview method and data were analysed qualitatively. Vegetable farm households in Sri Lanka faced multiple, diverse shocks characterised by cumulative, consecutive, interrelated, and ongoing events during the pandemic. This mix of shocks resulted in various impacts on vegetable farm households, but the common outcome on all households was f inancial due, in the main, to increased household costs and decreased household income. Farm households that predominantly depended on income from vegetable selling and farm households that produced only specialised types of vegetables for specialised markets were more adversely affected than others. Smallholder vegetable farm households were diverse in circumstances, production and marketing systems, household capitals, reliance on vegetables as an income source and livelihood activity. At any point in time different strategies related to production, marketing and financial hardships were being used by farm households to respond to the impacts of shocks they experienced. However, there was no consistent mix of strategies. The poorest continued to borrow, while others relied on savings and assets and then started to borrow when resources were depleted. How similar strategies were implemented varied across households depending on the social networks of households. While acknowledging the benefit of diversification for farm households during shocks, this study also illustrates that diversification does not guarantee that it will support farm households in buffering the impacts during a wide-scale shock that extends over a long period. However, market diversification supports farm households to buffer the impacts of shocks with broad-scale impacts. This study also identified the significance of individual household members’ personal characteristics such as motivation and enthusiasm in developing strategies and argues for including this attribute in human capital in the sustainable livelihood framework. Research insights strongly suggest that interventions intended to support farm households in buffering the impacts of shocks need to focus on the household level, prioritising the poorest of the poor while remaining open to addressing the needs of other farm households who might be wealthier but adversely affected by shocks. Providing direct financial support and implementing different financial services to accommodate the varied circumstances of farm households will benefit them during shocks. Interventions to build household and local community resilience will safeguard farm households as it will exclude the risk of overreliance on external government support.
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    Linking smallholder producers to high-value markets through producer cooperatives : a case study of vegetable producer cooperatives in Cambodia : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of AgriCommerce at Massey University, School of Agriculture and Environment, Palmerston North, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2019) Tray, Bunthan
    The emergence of supermarkets and high-value markets (HVMs) in developing countries has implications for producers and whole agri-food markets. To bring benefits of this development to smallholder producers, governments and development agencies have paid great attention to the essential roles of producer cooperatives (PCs). Many studies show that PCs succeeded in linking producers to HVMs, but numerous cases indicated that PCs did not achieve their goal. Modern retail markets and supermarkets have grown in Cambodia, but vegetable growers were unlikely to gain benefits from this HVMs. PCs play critical roles in assisting smallholder producers in strengthening market competition, but only a very few PCs achieved their business goals. The purpose of this research is 1) to examine the role of producer cooperatives (PCs) in linking vegetable producers to (HVMs) and 2) analyse the factors affecting successful participation in (HVMs). This study applied mixed research methods by integrating qualitative and quantitative approaches to examine vegetable value chains, the roles of PCs, and factor affecting smallholder producers’ participation in HVMs. With this study, the primary data was collected by using a face-to-face interview with PCs’ managers and a survey interview with PCs’ members. This study used Qualitative Data Analysis, descriptive statistics, binary logistic regression, chi-square test, and independent samples T-Test to address research objectives. The research indicated that the vegetable value chain in Cambodia consisted of two main marketing channels, such as traditional markets (TMs) and high-value markets (HVMs). The value chain of TMs was long and complicated with a number of chain actors, while the value chain of HVMs was short and high integration of the intermediaries. The research suggested that the value chain of HVMs provided a better price for producers, but volume supplied to supermarkets remains relatively small. In terms of the roles of PCs, all selected PCs provided agricultural input support, financial support, extension services, and market support to their members. However, PC-HVMs focused on both production and markets, while PC-TMs paid great attention to production. Based on these results, governments, and development agencies, and PCs should assist producers in both production technologies and business skills. The study examined factors that influenced smallholder producer groups’ participation in HVMs. The results indicate that the majority of respondents considered external factors, such as political, economic, social, environmental, and technological factors, as important factors affecting their participation in HVMs. This study suggested that wide ranges of supports provided to producers may help them to participate in HVMs. However, there is a need for favourite supporting policies and a macroeconomic environment from the government in the country. These could open up broader market opportunities for smallholder vegetable producers. The binary logistic regression results indicate that some internal factors, such as a vegetable farming experience, volume of vegetables, and average vegetable prices had a statistical significance with a positive sign. However, a vegetable farm size showed a negative sign.
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    Farmers' responses to VietGAP : a case study of a policy mechanism for transforming the traditional agri-food system in Vietnam : a dissertation presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Agricultural Systems and Environment at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2018) Hoang, Hung Gia
    The VietGAP programme is one of a suite of policies used by the Vietnamese Government to transform the country into a more market-led economy. It was implemented in 2009 to help foster the development of a modern agri-food system in Vietnam. However, it has had limited success with less than 5% of farmers adopting the programme. Little is formally known about how the programme was implemented or why it was not adopted by the majority of farmers. This dissertation contributes to understanding farmers’ responses to VietGAP, a policy mechanism that is associated with an emerging socio-technical regime in the early stages of a transition to a modern agri-food system. A single-case study design was employed, and data was collected primarily through semi-structured interviews supplemented with relevant documents. Qualitative data analysis techniques were used to analyse the interview data and relevant documents. In this study, VietGAP was viewed as a policy mechanism used by the government to help it shift from a traditional to a modern agri-food system. Significantly, this study found that the social, cultural, and institutional dimensions that define the dominant traditional agri-food system determined farmers’ responses to VietGAP. Firstly, there was a lack of concern about food safety among value chain actors, particularly consumers and this limited demand for VietGAP-certified vegetables. Secondly, subjective rather than objective measures were used to assess vegetable quality by actors throughout the domestic vegetable value chain. Thirdly, the coordination of this vegetable value chain was dominated by informal, trust-based relationships between value chain actors rather than through formal written contracts. In addition, farmers’ responses to VietGAP were influenced by the broader transition from a centrally planned to a more market-led system that is occurring in the country. The implementation of VietGAP changed the roles and nature of relationships between value chain actors and this influenced how farmers responded to VietGAP. This study highlights that farmers’ uptake of VietGAP requires changes to the socio-technical regime of the traditional agri-food system. Many farmers did not adopt VietGAP because of: 1) a lack of market demand for VietGAP-certified vegetables, 2) the risks associated with breaking informal institutions between farmers and preferred collectors; and 3) a lack of capability in key value chain actors. In contrast, a small number of farmers adopted VietGAP because of: 1) the level of support they received from the local government; and 2) their political aspirations and loyalty to the government. This research re-conceptualizes a public VietGAP scheme as a policy mechanism for transforming the traditional agri-food system in Vietnam. It provides insights into farmers’ responses to such policy mechanism and provides a more systemic view of the determinants of GAP adoption by producers. The insights gained from this study into what shaped farmers’ responses to VietGAP highlight areas that need to be considered when designing policies to enhance the uptake of public GAP programmes in developing countries that are in the early stages of a transition from a traditional to a modern agri-food system.
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    The supermarket and its influence upon the New Zealand market structure for fresh fruit and vegetables : a dissertation submitted at Massey University of Manawatu in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree, Master of Agricultural Science
    (Massey University, 1967) Laird, A. N
    Since 1958, supermarkets have been selling fresh fruit and vegetables, (otherwise known as fresh produce), in New Zealand. Their merchandising policies differ in many ways to those which characterise the traditional market structure of grower, wholesaler and greengrocer. Accordingly, the subsequent effects of these policies upon the three parties mentioned have been many and varied. Of paramount importance in this respect is the practice which involves the supermarket's bypassing of the wholesaler and purchasing his supplies directly from the grower. Obviously, this must adversely affect the wholesaler, and it is for this reason that the constraint upon the extent of direct procurement by supermarkets receives particular attention. The determining legislation behind this constraint is enforced by the wholesale industry, and it limits the realisation of cost economies by growers and supermarkets from purchasing direct. Furthermore, the grower views a laissez-faire policy of direct sales as a step towards his domination by monopoly interests at retail. This is a point of conjecture, but its importance lies in the fact that auction is viewed by growers as the means whereby this possibility can be prevented. The wholesale industry unequivocally determines certain activities of the growing and retailing industries for fresh produce. Whether or not it should possess this right is a further point of conjecture, because by virtue of its operations and the present lack of competition, it engenders monopsonistic-monopolistic practices, and carries a negligible amount of the risk involved in the distribution process.