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    A comparative study of the phosphorus characteristics of oil palm volcanic soils in Papua New Guinea and New Zealand volcanic soils : a thesis presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Applied Science in Soil Science at Massey University
    (Massey University, 1998) Banabas, Murom
    Oil Palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) grown on volcanic ash soils in Papua New Guinea (PNG) generally respond well to N fertilisers but shows a lack of consistent response to inorganic phosphorus (P) fertilisers. This is true even on soils with high phosphate retention (PR) and where Olsen P values highlighted in the preliminary survey of PNGOPRA field trial data are very low (<10 mg/kg). A notable exception occurs at Bialla (Trial 201) where significant responses (yield and growth parameters) to P fertilisers have been found on soils with very low Olsen P (<4 mg/kg) and very high PR values (>90% to at least 60 cm depth). This study was done to characterise the PNG oil palm growing volcanic soils in relation to P responsiveness, to identify P fractions and their relative amounts, to determine the fate of applied P fertilisers and to compare chemical and mineralogical characteristics of PNG soils with some New Zealand (NZ) equivalent soils. Mineralogical analysis indicates that the PNG soils used in this study are relatively young as evidenced by the presence of very high amounts of readily-weatherable volcanic glass in the sand, silt and clay fractions. Soils at Hoskins, Kapiura and Bialla, all in West New Britain (WNB) Province, contain similar amounts and types of primary and secondary minerals. Soils at Bialla are probably older than those at Hoskins and Kapiura and contain large amounts of secondary amorphous minerals (allophane and ferrihydrite) in the clay fraction. Soils at Popondetta are different from those in WNB with high amounts of hornblende and no augite or hypersthene in the heavy mineral fraction. Allophane levels in the clay fraction are high to very high in soil surface layers at Hoskins and Kapiura and at all depths in Bialla soils. At Popondetta, allophane content is very low at all depths PR in all soils and at all depths was highly correlated with acid oxalate extractable Al (Alo) (r = 0.84*) and iron (Feo) (r = 0.89*). The sources of these 2 extracts (allophane and ferrihydrite) are largely responsible for the high PR in the soils studied. High allophane and ferrihydrite levels at all depths in Bialla soils correspond well with very high PR values ( >90%) to at least 2 m depth. Low levels of these 2 minerals in Popondetta soils correspond well with low PR values (30%). Intermediate PR values (60 - 70%) for Hoskins and Kapiura surface soils correlates well with the occurrence of intermediate levels of allophane and ferrihydrite. In all PNG soils, a P fractionation scheme showed that the major P fractions are organic. At Hoskins, NaOH-Po accounts for 38 to 48% of total P. For Kapiura NaOH-Po accounts for approximately 50% of total P, and Bicarb.-Po accounts for 59% of total bicarbonate-extractable P. For Bialla soils, NaOH-Po and Bicarb.-Po comprise between 74 and 76%, on average, of their respective total extracted P for all depths. At Popondetta, NaOH-Po comprises 62% and Bicarb.-Po 63% of their respective total extractable P contents. P fertiliser accumulation in Hoskins and Kapiura soils occurs mostly in organic forms and within the top 10 cm of soil. At Hoskins, 83% of total added P accumulated in the top 10 cm (53% being NaOH-Po) while 17% was found in the next 10 cm depth (31% being NaOH-Po). At Kapiura, 74% of total accumulated P was found in the top 10 cm of soil (61% being NaOH-Po) and 26% within the 20 - 30 cm layer (81% being NaOH-Po). The presence of amorphous minerals explains much of the behaviour of P in trial soils, with the major P source/sink in PNG soils being as organic forms. In relation to soil mineralogical and chemical characteristics, PNG soils were classified into one of the major 3 groups in terms of responsiveness to P fertilisers; (a) soils with very high PR (>90%) and Olsen P values of less than 4 mg/kg which are considered most likely to respond to inorganic P fertilisers e.g. Bialla soil, (b) soils with medium to high PR (60 - 70%) will likely show inconsistent responses to P fertilisers and P responses are most likely to be secondary to N e.g. Hoskins and Kapiura soils and (c) soils with low PR (30 - 40%) which are unlikely to respond to P fertilisers at least in the foreseeable future e.g. Popondetta soils. This study highlights a future need for further study of the dynamics of P nutrient cycling, specifically the mineralisation rates of organic matter and the release of Pi for plant uptake in PNG oil palm growing soils. Also there is a need to re-establish the leaf critical concentration because in PNG soils though leaf levels are generally less than 0.150% DM, palms do not always respond to P fertilisers. This suggests that the "critical" P concentrations under PNG conditions is probably less than the international standard at 0.150% DM. Mineralogical and P sorption characteristics of young volcanic ash soils in NZ are sufficiently similar to those in PNG to provide useful information about the general behaviour of P fertilisers and P reaction products in oil palm production systems.
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    Late quaternary volcanic stratigraphy of the southeastern sector of the Mount Ruapehu ring plain New Zealand : a thesis presented as partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Soil Science
    (Massey University, 1991) Donoghue, Susan Leigh
    Mt Ruapehu is an active composite strato-volcano situated within the Tongariro Volcanic Centre, North Island, New Zealand. It is surrounded by an extensive ring plain built principally from laharic deposits, capped by late Pleistocene and Holocene-aged tephras. Stratigraphic studies and geologic mapping on the southeastern sector of the Mt Ruapehu ring plain have identified six andesitic tephra formations (Tufa Trig Formation, Ngauruhoe Formation, Mangatawai Tephra, Mangamate Tephra, Pahoka Tephra, Bullot Formation) erupted from Mt Ruapehu, Mt Tongariro and Mt Ngauruhoe during the past c. 22 500 years. A seventh formation, Papakai Formation, comprises both andesitic tephra and tephric loess. Most of the tephras erupted from Mt Ruapehu are grouped into the Bullot and Tufa Trig formations which are of late Pleistocene to Holocene age. Other intermittent eruptions during the Holocene have contributed tephra to the Papakai Formation. The Bullot Formation tephras represent a period of active and widespread tephra deposition from subplinian eruptions. Most of the tephras have been deposited to the east of the volcano under the influence of prevailing westerly winds, with an average eruption interval of approximately one event every 200 years. Tephras of Tufa Trig Formation are the products of small hydrovolcanic eruptions and, although erupted more frequently (one event approximately every 100 years), have contributed comparatively little tephra to the ring plain. Tephras erupted from Mt Tongariro (Mangamate Tephra, Pahoka Tephra) comprise most of the Holocene tephra record on the Mt Ruapehu ring plain, being deposited during a period of quiescence at Mt Ruapehu. Their eruption is coincident with the introduction of mixed magmas beneath Mt Tongariro. Fourteen rhyolitic tephra formations (Kaharoa Tephra, Mapara Tephra, Taupo Pumice, Waimihia Tephra, Hinemaiaia Tephra, Whakatane Tephra, Motutere Tephra, Poronui Tephra, Karapiti Tephra, Waiohau Tephra, ?Rotorua Tephra, Rerewhakaaitu Tephra, Okareka Tephra, Kawakawa Tephra Formation) erupted from the Okataina and Taupo volcanic centres of the central North Island have also been identified. They are important marker beds used to date andesitic tephras and laharic deposits preserved on the southeastern ring plain. The stratigraphic relationships between these distal rhyolitic tephras, and their relationship to local andesitic tephras is discussed, and the stratigraphy of some rhyolitic tephras identified by Topping and Kohn (1973) revised. The tephras have been identified from their stratigraphic positions, ferromagnesian mineral assemblages and glass shard chemistries. The mineralogy and chemistry of selected andesitic marker beds has been detailed for purposes of regional identification and correlation. A database for Tongariro Centre tephras is established using ferromagnesian mineral assemblages and major element chemistry of ferromagnesian phenocrysts, and glass determined by electron microprobe analysis. The potential for use of andesitic tephra mineralogy in stratigraphic studies is evaluated. The ferromagnesian mineral assemblage of Tongariro Volcanic Centre tephras comprises orthopyroxene + clinopyroxene ± olivine ± hornblende. Orthopyroxene compositions project mostly as hypersthene, and clinopyroxenes as augite. Olivine and hornblende are valuable marker minerals to the identification of some tephras. The olivines are forsteritic, some of which show distinctive skeletal morphology. The hornblende phenocrysts are calcic amphiboles and project mostly as pargasitic hornblende. Groundmass glass compositions of some pumice lapilli range between andesite and rhyolite. Bulk rock compositions are andesite. The deposits of debris flows and hyperconcentrated flood flows comprise much of the prehistoric stratigraphy of the southeastern Ruapehu ring plain, with minor fluvial lithologies, indicating lahars are common events at Mt Ruapehu. The deposits are grouped into five formations (Onetapu Formation, Manutahi Formation, Mangaio Formation, Tangatu Formation, Te Heuheu Formation) on the basis of lithology. The stratigraphic relationships between these formations is discussed and their distributions mapped. These formations form the major constructional surfaces of the southeastern ring plain. They are envisaged as having been generated following large scale sector collapses of the southeastern flanks of Mt Ruapehu, and by snow and ice melt associated with eruption of hot pyroclastic ejecta, the ejection of Crater Lake waters, or by heavy rains inducing widespread flood events, capable of eroding flank and ring plain materials. Much of the erosion and aggradation that has occurred within the Rangipo Desert in the last c. 1800 years is attributable to lahars. At least 35 laharic events are recorded on the southeastern ring plain within the last c. 22 500 years. The most active period of lahar generation is the present day, with an average incidence of one event every 11 years. Many of the recent lahars have been confined within Whangaehu Valley.
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    Late quarternary volcanic stratigraphy within a portion of the northeastern Tongariro volcanic centre : a thesis presented as partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Soil Science
    (Massey University, 1996) Cronin, Shane Jason
    Investigation of the Late Quaternary volcanic stratigraphy within the andesitic Tongariro Volcanic Centre has elucidated the history of construction of the northeastern Ruapehu and eastern Tongariro ring plains and provided a lahar record for the Tongariro catchment. Volcaniclastic ring-plain sequences were correlated and dated using rhyolitic and andesitic marker tephras. The identification of distal rhyolitic tephras in the area was improved by the application of discriminant function analysis (DFA) to their electron microprobe-determined glass chemistry. The Okaia. Omataroa and Hauparu Tephras and the Rotoehu Ash were identified for the first time in this area, providing a chronology for pre-22.6 ka ring-plain sequences not previously investigated. DFA of ferromagnesian mineral chemistry proved useful for discrimination of andesitic tephras. with titanomagnetite being the most useful phase. Development of an andesitic tephrostratigraphy in pre-22.6 ka sequences was aided by clustering analysis and DFA. Seven andesitic marker tephras were identified using a range of parameters to supplement the rhyolitic tephrostratigraphy. Using the tephrochronologic framework, 15 packages of lahar deposits were identified on the northeastern Ruapehu ring plain (from >64 to c. 5.2 ka) and six on the eastern Tongariro ring plain (from >22.6 to 11.9 ka). Lahar deposition on both ring plains was most voluminous and widespread during the last (Ohakean) and antepenultimate (Porewan) stadials of the last glacial (Otiran). Holocene lahars were restricted to a narrow sector of the northeastern Ruapehu ring plain. They appear to have been triggered mostly in response to large-scale tephra eruptions of Ruapehu and Tongariro, and mostly occurred along the path of the Mangatoetoenui Stream. Lahar deposits and surfaces beside the Tongariro River were mapped in eight lahar hazard zones, with lahar recurrence intervals ranging from 1 in >15 000 years to 1 in 35 years. The largest number and volume of lahars in this catchment occurred in the period from 14.7 to 10 ka. The greatest population risk identified in the Tongariro catchment is part of Turangi, built within a 1 in 1000 year lahar-hazard zone. Other property and infrastructure at greater risk include the State Highway 1 bridge across the Mangatoetoenui Stream and the Rangipo Dam and Power Station, within a 1 in 35 year hazard zone. The landscape of the northeastern Ruapehu and eastern Tongariro ring plains has developed in relation to late Quaternary climate changes in addition to volcanic activity. During the last and antepenultimate stadials of the last glacial, major ring-plain aggradation by lahars and streams occurred. This was probably in response to greater physical weathering and glacier action on the volcanic cones providing abundant sediment for lahars. During the warmer interstadials of the last glacial, soil development within andesitic ring plain material was greatest, particularly when the rate of soil accretion was low.