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Item Conserving biodiversity through collaborative management : an investigation of interactions between ecosystems and societal systems and the Whangamarino wetland : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Philosophy in Resource and Environmental Planning at Massey University(Massey University, 2000) Kessels, Gerardus (Gerry) Henricus AnthoniusThe notion of collaborative management is analysed as a method to achieve biological diversity conservation. This is explored primarily in the context of New Zealand's social, cultural and economic values and norms, and the influences of these human constructs on sensitive ecological systems, using the Whangamarino Wetland and its sub-catchment as a case study. Collaborative management can be defined as a situation in which some or all of the relevant stakeholders in a protected area are involved in a substantial way in governance, management and monitoring activities. In the New Zealand context, collaborative management would need to involve an equal partnership between the Crown and tangata whenua at a governance level. At a management and monitoring level, all the relevant stakeholders (primarily including the local community, recreational and resource users, and mana whenua) would be involved in a process which specifies and guarantees their respective functions, rights and responsibilities with regard to the relevant ecosystem. From the Naturalistic Inquiry research process employed, six propositional statements were developed from the data: I. Multidisciplinary, integrated and interagency partnerships will enhance biodiversity conservation management decisions as well as promote more efficient, effective and relevant monitoring programmes. 2. Tangata whenua have a legitimate and equal status role, to the Crown in the governance, management and monitoring of the Whangamarino Wetland. 3. Local communities and resource users are ready and willing to participate in a collaborative management approach to resource management issues within the Whangamarino sub-catchment. 4. Crown agencies understand what collaborative management entails but there are political, personal, institutional and capital barriers to implementation. 5. Skilled leadership, policy flexibility and a common vision amongst all parties involved will improve the quality of biodiversity conservation outcomes. 6. Incorporating local and indigenous knowledge, ideas and experience will produce better biodiversity conservation outcomes and monitoring processes, and build public trust and support for natural resource institutions.Item Are aquatic invertebrates useful for assessing wetland condition? : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Environmental Management at Massey University, Manawatu, New Zealand(Massey University, 2017) Ekelund, LovisaFreshwater wetlands are one of the most biodiverse ecosystems and at the same time of the most threatened globally. New Zealand has lost 90% of its wetlands and of those remaining, 60% are considered degraded. Establishing accurate wetland inventories and assessing wetland condition are priorities for the management and conservation of these important ecosystems. Aquatic invertebrates are used worldwide to assess the condition of other aquatic ecosystems such as rivers and lakes; however, their use for assessing wetland condition has not been extensive. A wetland’s hydroperiod is considered one of the most important environmental variables affecting wetland biota and one that has also been most altered by anthropogenic stresses. The second chapter of this thesis analyses the effect of hydroperiod on the macroinvertebrate communities of the Ō Tū Wharekai (Ashburton lakes) wetland system in New Zealand. A total of 40 taxa from 11 orders were recorded from 4 permanent lakes, 3 semi-permanent ponds, and 7 temporary ponds in September 2016. The macroinvertebrate assemblages in lakes were distinct to those in semi-permanent and temporary ponds. Overall, temporary ponds were slightly more diverse than the semipermanent ponds and lakes. Semi-permanent and temporary ponds were most similar to each other in macroinvertebrate composition. They host more species of small crustaceans such as cladocerans and ostracods, while species belonging to the Trichoptera, Odonata and Hirudinea orders were only present at permanent sites. The results emphasize the need to include small and seasonal wetlands in freshwater conservation efforts since they often hold unique biotic communities. In the third chapter, the potential to use macroinvertebrate communities in wetland assessment is evaluated. The macroinvertebrate communities of 14 freshwater wetlands in the lower North Island were sampled. The sites represent a gradient of wetland condition and include urban lagoons, agricultural swamps and lacustrine wetlands with recognized ecological value. A total of 63 invertebrate taxa were identified, of which crustaceans were the most abundant. There appeared to be no link between the composition and diversity of macroinvertebrate communities and wetland condition. However, of the habitat characteristics measured at each site, nutrient enrichment appeared to be the most important variable in determining macroinvertebrate assemblages. On the other hand, macrophyte communities appear to be more reflective of wetland condition. There are considerable knowledge gaps regarding invertebrate response to environmental change in freshwater wetlands and this limits their suitability as a biomonitoring tool. Assessing wetland condition accurately is one of the greatest challenges for the management and conservation of these threatened ecosystems. Aquatic invertebrates are used as biomonitoring tool for many freshwater ecosystems but not wetlands. This is because the way wetland invertebrates respond to environmental change remains unclear. So far, in New Zealand, there appears to be no link between wetland condition scores and invertebrate communities. Thus, the final section of this thesis proposes a simple dichotomous wetland condition scoring system exemplified with information from the 14 freshwater wetland sampled in the North Island. The method has limitations, but allows the integration of biotic data into wetland condition assessment.Item The impact of urban development and habitat fragmentation on aquatic invertebrate communities in remnant wetlands : a Christchurch case study : a thesis presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Applied Science in Natural Resource Management at Massey University(Massey University, 2004) Knight, JohnThe coastal plains that are now occupied by Christchurch City, in the South Island of New Zealand, were once dominated by palustrine and estuarine wetland systems. These wetlands were almost completely drained over a 100-year period in order to allow the construction of the city and to provide arable land for farming. However, remnants of the original wetlands have been preserved and are scattered throughout the present metropolitan area. Most of these are small riparian wetlands associated with Christchurch's many streams and three major river systems. In addition, there are also several large remnant wetland reserves that each cover many hectares. These remnant wetlands experience a range of environmental pressures from adjacent urban development, including stormwater discharge, landscaping, flood control, the presence of dense housing, pressure from introduced plants and insects, and more recently, wetland enhancement programmes. This study investigated the impact of urban development and habitat fragmentation on remnant urban riparian wetlands primarily by comparing the aquatic invertebrate communities that they support, with the same communities in three unmodified 'natural' wetlands associated with lowland streams flowing through native tussock and scrubland. A range of physical parameters (water clarity, conductivity, pH, temperature) were also measured. Three wetlands of a similar type and size located in pastoral grazing areas, and three artificially constructed urban wetlands, were also assessed to provide additional points of reference. The unmodified wetlands exhibited slightly higher species richness and abundance when compared to the remnant urban wetlands. However, this difference was not statistically significant (p>0.05). The unmodified wetlands showed significantly higher species richness than both the constructed and pastoral wetlands (p<0.01). Both of these highly modified wetland types contained large numbers of dipterans and molluscs, whereas the unmodified and remnant wetlands contained higher proportions of coleoptera and hemiptera. Significant differences were also detected between some of the pH, water clarity and temperature levels measured in the various wetland types. The effect of wetland size was also measured by comparing the invertebrate faunas in small, medium and large remnant fragments. Although lower macroinvertebrate abundance and species richness was observed in the small fragments, no statistically significant difference was detected between the three fragment sizes (p>0.05). There was also no significant difference between the unmodified wetlands and the remnant fragments. It was concluded that fragment size did not have a significant effect on the aquatic invertebrate communities in remnant urban wetlands, and adjacent urban development did not have a significant adverse impact on remnant urban wetlands when compared to natural wetland systems. Intensive pastoral grazing had a significant and quite severe effect on wetland systems, probably due to eutrophication and sediment wash-off. Artificially constructed wetlands contained significantly lower species richness than natural wetland systems. Remnant urban fragments appear to be resistant to the effects of urbanisation, and are considered to be suitable habitats for preserving native aquatic biodiversity in urban areas.Item The foraging ecology of non-breeding Wrybills (Anarhynchus frontalis) in the Firth of Thames : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Ecology at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand(Massey University, 2015) Wittington, Rachel JayneThe Firth of Thames in the North Island of New Zealand is one of the most important wintering sites for Wrybills (Anarhynchus frontalis), second only to the Manukau Harbour. Together these two estuarine areas support approximately 85% of the entire Wrybill population between late summer and early spring each year. While the breeding biology and ecology on their braided river breeding grounds in the South Island have been well documented, the foraging ecology of Wrybills in their non‐breeding habitats has not been deeply studied. Wrybills possess a uniquely shaped bill considered to be an adaptation to their life on the South Island braided rivers during their breeding months. However, despite this they use their bill very effectively on the tidal flats of their winter habitats. In this thesis I studied the foraging ecology of Wrybills in the western Firth of Thames, with a focus on the factors affecting their low‐tide feeding distribution, and how diet and intake rates varied with foraging mode. The distribution of foraging Wrybills was correlated with a number of environmental variables (sediment type, sediment softness, water content, and polychaete abundance and biomass). Foraging Wrybills showed a preference for areas of tidal flat close to shore with soft sediment and high polychaete biomass. Wrybills exhibited different foraging modes that were used in areas with different environmental conditions. Birds fed (1) visually, walking slowly and obtaining most of their biomass intakes from large polychaete worms, (2) by tactile means, capturing mainly small worms or (3) a combination of the visual and tactile methods. Visual feeding tended to occur in drier, sandier sediments and tactile in wetter, muddier areas close to shore. Despite proportionately different intakes of large and small polychaete worms across the different foraging modes, the total biomass intake rates were similar. In addition to polychaete captures, tactile foragers in particular frequently took mouthfuls of sediment, an action which raised the possibility that they may be feeding on surficial biofilm. Stable isotope analysis of Wrybill faeces, blood and feathers revealed some evidence of biofilm feeding in Wrybills at the Firth of Thames.Item The dynamics of temporary wetlands in dune slacks at Tangimoana, Manawatu, New Zealand with special reference to the endangered sand spiked sedge, Eleocharis neozelandica Kirk (Cyperaceae) : a thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Masters of Science in Ecology at Massey University(Massey University, 1997) Singers, NicholasParabolic dunes are a feature of the Manawatu, New Zealand coastline. Moving inland, the dunes form temporary wetlands in deflation hollows (dune slacks) on their seaward side. One of the few remaining natural dune systems lift in the Manawatu is located south of the Rangitikei River mouth at Tangimoana, the "Tangimoana dump dunes", a proposed DoC reserve. The area contains excellent examples of temporary wetlands in dune slacks, with early successional vegetation well represented. This vegetation is being eliminated by larger wetland plants and is unable to colonize new habitat, as dune stabilization prevents its formation. The vegetation of the proposed reserve was sampled and vegetation patterns were related to environmental factors. Foredune, dune plain, slack, marram dune, shrub dune and grassland communities were identitied. A low species diversity was found, which included a high proportion of exotic species in the grassland, shrub and marram dune communities. The low number of communities and species richness may be related to the area's youth and the dune's dynamic nature. Water table fluctuation were monitored in two temporary wetlands, which contained the endangered sand spiked sedge, Eleocharis neozelandica, an early successional species. The water table fluctuation were directly related to rainfall and season. A high winter and spring water table in 1995 resulted in dramatic changes in the distributions of some dune slack plants. Control and exclosure plots were used to assess the effects of rabbit browse on the dune slack vegetation. These plots also provided valuable information of the vegetation change to water table heights. Species more suited to permanently wet location increased greatly, while species suited to more temporary wet areas moved higher in elevation, to around the winter high water line. Two endangered plants of the Manawatu dunelands, Eleocharis neozelandica and Pimelea "Turakina" were cultivated and then established at the Tangimoana dump dunes. Pimelea "Turakina" appears to be well adapted to the Manawatu dune lands and produced abundant seedlings at Tangimoana. Creation of deflation hollows for E. neozelandica habitat was undertaken. E. neozelandica was planted in the constructed hollows at three separate elevation, and survived winter submergence at the medium and high elevation sites, of at least seven months at the medium site, and appears to be a valuable and effective management tool for the conservation of dune slack species. The tolerance and growth of E. neozelandica and other dune slack species in relation to sand burial, waterlogging and submergence was studies in controlled experiments. They appear to be generally intolerant of sand burial, but all survived submergence and thrived in waterlogged conditions. Temporary wetlands in dune slacks at the Tangimoana are incredible dynamic in relation to the water table fluctuation, and changes in species distributions resulting from them. Management solutions need to be active and address these results in order to maintain the indigenous flora of the area.Item The role of Empodisma minus as the ecosystem engineer of the fen-bog transition (FBT) in New Zealand mires : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of PhD in Plant Ecology at Massey University (Manawatu), New Zealand(Massey University, 2013) Hodges, Tarnia AnnMire ecosystem engineers create an acidic, nutrient poor and slowly permeable peat due to specific morphological, physiological and organo-chemical properties, changing the ecology of fens (high-nutrient, wet mires) so that they become bogs (low nutrient mires with drier surfaces), the so-called fen-bog transition. Observations on the development of raised restiad bogs in New Zealand support the concept of ecosystem engineering in forming raised mires, but involving the species Empodisma) minus and Empodisma) robustum, of the family Restionaceae. The aim of this thesis is to examine the facility with which Empodisma)minus fits the model of the ecosystem engineer of the fen-bog transition in New Zealand, and the techniques used to achieve that transition. A model for identifying mire engineers is proposed, based on the collated literature. Species best able to compete in the low nutrient raised mire environment possess morphological adaptations to increase nutrient capture, or traits which minimise nutrient losses (low tissue nutrient levels, high leaf longevity, high nutrient resorption prior to abscission). Whilst both Empodisma)minus and Chionochloa)rubra appear to possess nutrient retention and capture traits, Empodisma minus appears to out-compete Chionochloa)rubra in low nutrient mires, implying superior nutrient capture or retention strategies. In a survey of 70 mire communities in New Zealand – taking canopy biomass, soil physico- chemistry and the existence of capillaroid root growth and hummock-hollow topography into account - it is clearly shown that Empodidma) minus is tolerant of a wide range of environmental conditions, thus enabling it to establish in minerotrophic fens, and persist after the fen-bog transition. In contrast to its widespread occurrence in wetland vegetation communities, extensive capillaroid root growth and the associated hummock-hollow topography occur less frequently. Despite P-limited growth being indicated, capillaroid root growth is infrequent or absent in coal pavement and pakihi communities, or where Empodisma) minus is not the dominant canopy species. Empodisma) minus appears to form capillaroid roots to maximise nutrient capture in the surface litter layer under a dense Empodisma canopy, and a complex relationship between capillaroid root formation, climate, canopy biomass and nutrients is indicated. Lower tissue nutrient levels where the species co-exist in mires suggest Empodisma)minus is a more frugal user of limiting nutrients than Chionochloa) rubra, of importance as the growing surface of the mire becomes increasingly dependent on ombrotrophic (rainfall) nutrient iv sources as a result of peat accumulation. I studied the competitive relations between Empodisma)minus and Chionochloa)rubra in a 26 month long, de Wit replacement competition experiment. Empodisma) minus is the superior competitor long-term in the oligotrophic conditions of the fen-bog transition and raised mire environments, providing a high water table is maintained; otherwise species co-existence will likely occur. These results suggest a dense Empodisma canopy is required to maintain the wet environment needed for apogeotropic root weft growth, which displayed plasticity in proliferation and placement. To further examine nutrient retention and loss traits in Empodisma)minus and Chionochloa) rubra, I evaluated their production and decomposition characteristics in a 12 month Litter Decomposition Experiment in a montane transitional mire. Empodisma)minus culms comprise much of the canopy biomass in wet, oligotrophic conditions of the mire environment, while Chionochloa)rubra tussocks are reduced in density and biomass. Mass losses after 12 months were lowest from Empodisma)minus capillaroid roots, which contain high fibre, and less P, K, and celluose than Chionochloa) rubra below-ground biomass. Both Empodisma) minus and Chionochloa) rubra produce low nutrient, slowly decomposing foliar litters, with Empodisma) minus) withdrawing much of the nutrient content from its senescing culms. While a large component of total litter inputs in transitional restiad fens may be comprised of senesced Empodisma) minus culms, the slower decay of Empodisma) minus capillaroid roots suggest these contribute an increasing proportion of the accumulating organic matter after 12 months. There is a significant relationship between short-term decay rates and location within the mire, however, this appears to be unrelated to the nutrient content or geochemistry of the substrate, and may reflect the influence of hummock-hollow topography and/or hydrology on decomposition. Empodisma)minus possesses both mechanisms employed in engineering the fen-bog transition - superior nutrient capture and nutrient retention - which results in increased production of slowly decaying capillaroid roots and foliage in oligotrophic mires, and hence increased peat accumulation. The mechanisms enable Empodisma)minus to engineer the fen-bog transition in New Zealand mires.)