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Item Sous vide processing to tenderise meat : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Food Technology at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand(Massey University, 2024-12-03) Akmal, Noorul FaridatulThe development of meat tenderness during sous vide cooking is associated with the proteolysis of meat proteins by endogenous enzymes, such as cathepsins B and L, and collagen solubilisation. However, these two processes are optimal at different temperature regimes. The aim of this thesis was to evaluate the effect of combining both temperature regimes through two-stage sous vide cooking on meat tenderness and cooking loss, as well as its ability to reduce total cooking time compared to conventional single-temperature sous vide cooking. This thesis also aimed to determine the roles of cathepsin B and L, collagen denaturation, and collagen solubilisation in the development of meat tenderness. Data for this thesis were obtained using beef pectoralis profundus (brisket), which is a tough meat cut that has the potential to gain tenderness through sous vide cooking. In this thesis, the kinetics of cathepsin B and L activity during sous vide cooking of beef brisket were evaluated at the temperatures of 46 – 60 °C for up to 72 h. Their activity initially increased, then decreased with longer cooking time. These changes in cathepsin B and L activity were successfully modeled using consecutive reactions in series, which are activation (the release of cathepsin from lysosomes) followed by deactivation (thermal denaturation). The model allows for the calculation of the cumulative activity of cathepsins for a given temperature and time. It was found that a greater cumulative activity can be achieved by sous vide cooking at lower temperatures such as 46 °C for a prolonged time compared to a higher temperature such as 56 °C. To evaluate the effect of precooking at different cumulative cathepsin B and L activities on meat tenderness, cooking loss, and collagen solubilisation, beef brisket was precooked at the temperatures of 46 °C and 56 °C for up to 72 h, followed by cooking at 71 °C. No change in the shear force value of meat precooked at 46 °C was observed, while a decrease in the shear force value was noted in meat precooked at 56 °C with increasing cooking time. Meat precooked at 56 °C also showed higher collagen solubilisation than meat precooked at 46 °C, while no difference in cooking loss was observed between the two precooking temperatures. From this work it was concluded that higher cumulative cathepsin B and L activity did not result in tenderisation of meat indicating that cathepsin B and L do not contribute to the development of tenderness in tough meat cuts like brisket. On the other hand, meat tenderness appears to be correlated with collagen solubilisation. A further study using precooking at different cumulative activities (46 – 56 °C for 0 – 12 h), followed by cooking at 80 °C for 8 h, supports the result that cathepsins B and L do not contribute to meat tenderisation during sous vide cooking. In this study, beef brisket precooked at 46, 50, and 53 °C for 12 h and at 56 °C for 6 and 12 h had a lower shear force value than meat cooked directly at 80 °C for 8 h. Faster tenderisation was observed as early as 6 h with precooking at 56 °C. Sous vide cooking at 56 °C for 6 and 12 h was characterised by lower cumulative cathepsin B and L activity, a higher degree of collagen denaturation, and a marked decrease in final yield force compared to other temperature-time combinations. The kinetics of collagen denaturation in sous vide-cooked beef brisket were also determined in this thesis, using the enthalpy of denaturation (∆H) of the second peak (Peak 2) from the thermogram generated by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). The change in the ∆H of Peak 2 was successfully modeled using a three-protein model. The simulation of collagen denaturation using kinetic parameters obtained from the model showed a marked increase in collagen denaturation at 56 °C. A further study using precooking at 56 °C for 6 h, followed by cooking at various second-stage temperature-time combinations (60, 70, 80, and 90 °C for 0 – 20 h), showed that two-stage sous vide cooking could not reduce the total cooking time to tenderise meat compared to conventional single-temperature sous vide cooking. Based on conventional single-temperature sous vide cooking, the time required for beef brisket to reach the shear force correlated with the consumer tenderness threshold (Liang et al., 2016) was determined. It was found that at 60, 70, 80, and 90 °C, the times required to achieve the consumer tenderness threshold were 20, 26, 12, and 8 h, respectively. Although shorter times were needed to achieve the consumer tenderness threshold at 80 and 90 °C, these temperatures resulted in significantly higher cooking loss compared to 60 °C.Item Modeling the Contribution of Meat to Global Nutrient Availability(Frontiers Media S.A., 2022-02-02) Smith NW; Fletcher AJ; Hill JP; McNabb WC; Berry EAn increasing global population requires increasing food and nutrient availability. Meat is recognized as a nutrient dense food, particularly notable for its high-quality protein content, B vitamin and mineral content. However, it is not known how important meat is currently in nourishing the global population. The DELTA Model was used to calculate the contribution of meat (defined as animal flesh, excluding fish and seafood) to the global availability of 29 nutrients. This model utilizes global food production and use data, coupled with data for food waste, food nutrient composition and nutrient bioavailability to calculate the total amount of each nutrient available for consumption by the global population. Around 333 million tons of meat were produced globally in 2018, 95% of which was available as food, constituting ~7% of total food mass. Meat's contribution to nutrient availability was disproportionately higher than this: meat provided 11% of global food energy availability, 29% of dietary fat and 21% of protein. For the micronutrients, meat provided high proportions of vitamins: A (24%), B1 and B2 (15% each), B5 (10%), B6 (13%), and B12 (56%). Meat also provided high proportions of several trace elements: zinc (19%), selenium (18%), iron (13%), phosphorous (11%), and copper (10%). Meat is a poor contributor to fiber, magnesium and vitamins C and E. Meat was responsible for 16% (cystine) to 32% (lysine) of global availability of the bioavailable indispensable amino acids included in the model, due partly to the high digestibility of these nutrients from meat (83-100%). Of the total meat mass available as food in 2018, 23% was ruminant meat, 34% poultry meat, 32% pig meat, 2% other meat, and 9% offal and fats. The disproportionate contribution of meat to the global availability of nutrients emphasizes its important place in delivering nutrition to the current global population.Item Effectiveness of mānuka and rosemary oils as natural and green antioxidants in wagyu and normal beef(John Wiley and Sons Ltd on behalf of Institute of Food, Science and Technology (IFSTTF), 2023-02-28) Kaur R; Kaur L; Gupta TB; Bronlund JEssential oils possessing antioxidant characteristics have acquired broad interest as an alternative to synthetic food antioxidants like butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT). In this study, mānuka (with 5, 25 and 40% triketone content) (MO), rosemary (RO) and kānuka (KO) oils were characterised and screened through DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl) and FRAP (Ferric radical absorbing power) assays for their antioxidant efficacies. Different triketone levels were selected to examine their effect on the antioxidant activity of MO. All MOs showed higher phenolic content and antioxidant activities than KO and RO. Based on the obtained results, the MO with 25% triketone content and RO were chosen to study their antioxidant effects in pastes prepared from New Zealand normal (3% fat) and wagyu (12% fat) beef during refrigerated storage (7 days). No significant effect of the oils was observed on lipid oxidation in normal pastes during storage. However, MO and BHT significantly reduced lipid oxidation in wagyu pastes, showing the potential of mānuka oil as a natural antioxidant in high-fat meat products.Item Protein and Lipid Digestibility of Pasture-Raised and Grain-Finished Beef: An In Vitro Comparison(MDPI (Basel, Switzerland), 2023-03-14) Kaur L; Elamurugan A; Chian FM; Zhu X; Boland M; Gagaoua MThis study compared the digestibility of protein and fat components of pasture-raised and grain-finished beef using an in vitro oral-gastro-small intestinal digestion model. Two commonly consumed beef cuts, tenderloin (Psoas major) and striploin (Longissimus dorsi) were selected for this study. There were no substantial differences between the pasture-raised and grain-finished cuts of meat in terms of protein digestibility, as shown by the protein and peptide breakdown (observed through SDS-PAGE) and the degree of hydrolysis as measured by free amino nitrogen. Tenderloin, however, showed significantly (p < 0.05) higher overall protein digestibility than striploin. Both striploin and tenderloin digests from pasture-raised beef released significantly (p < 0.05) higher total amounts of free long-chain n-3 PUFAs and lower amounts of many free saturated fatty acids, notably palmitic and myristic acids, than those from grain-finished animals. The results suggest greater health benefits from consuming pasture-raised beef, particularly tenderloin.Item Less Animal-Based Food, Better Weight Status: Associations of the Restriction of Animal-Based Product Intake with Body-Mass-Index, Depressive Symptoms and Personality in the General Population(MDPI (Basel, Switzerland), 2020-05) Medawar E; Enzenbach C; Roehr S; Villringer A; Riedel-Heller SG; Witte AVRestricting animal-based products from diet may exert beneficial effects on weight status; however, less is known about such a diet and emotional health. Moreover, personality traits, for example high neuroticism, may contribute to restrictive eating habits and potentially confound diet-health associations. We aim to systematically assess if restrictive dietary intake of animal-based products relates to lower weight and higher depressive symptoms, and if differences in personality traits play a significant role. Cross-sectional data from the baseline LIFE-Adult study were collected from 2011–2014 in Leipzig, Germany (n = 8943). Main outcomes of interest were dietary frequency of animal-derived products in the last year measured using a Food Frequency Questionnaire (FFQ), body-mass-index (BMI) (kg/m2), and the Center of Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale (CES-D). Personality traits were assessed in a subsample of n = 7906 using the Five Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI). Higher restriction of animal-based product intake was associated with a lower BMI, but not with depression scores. Personality, i.e., lower extraversion, was related to higher frequency of animal product intake. Moreover, personality traits were significantly associated with depressive symptoms, i.e., higher neuroticism, lower extraversion, lower agreeableness, lower conscientiousness, and with higher BMI. These findings encourage future longitudinal studies to test the efficacy of restricting animal-based products as a preventive and therapeutic strategy for overweight and obesity.Item Endogenous Proteolytic Systems and Meat Tenderness: Influence of Post-Mortem Storage and Processing(Korean Society for Food Science of Animal Resources (KoSFA), 2021-07-01) Kaur L; Hui SX; Morton JD; Kaur R; Chian FM; Boland MMeat proteolytic systems play a crucial role in meat tenderisation. Understanding the effects of processing technologies and post-mortem storage conditions on these systems is important due to their crucial role in determining the quality characteristics of meat and meat products. It has recently been proposed that tenderisation occurs due to the synergistic action of numerous endogenous proteolytic systems. There is strong evidence suggesting the importance of μ-calpain during the initial post-mortem aging phase, while m-calpain may have a role during long-term aging. The caspase proteolytic system is also a candidate for cell degradation in the initial stages of conversion of muscle to meat. The role of cathepsins, which are found in the lysosomes, in post-mortem aging is controversial. Lysosomes need to be ruptured, through aging, or other forms of processing to release cathepsins into the cytosol for participation in proteolysis. A combination of optimum storage conditions along with suitable processing may accelerate protease activity within meat, which can potentially lead to improved meat tenderness. Processing technologies such as high pressure, ultrasound, and shockwave processing have been reported to disrupt muscle structure, which can facilitate proteolysis and potentially enhance the aging process. This paper reviews the recent literature on the impacts of processing technologies along with post-mortem storage conditions on the activities of endogenous proteases in meat. The information provided in the review may be helpful in selecting optimum post-mortem meat storage and processing conditions to achieve improved muscle tenderness within shorter aging and cooking times.