Browsing by Author "Williams, Matt"

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Across borders and time : testing the competing perspectives of system justification : a thesis presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Psychology at Massey University, Albany, New Zealand
(Massey University, 2025-08-29) Valdes, Evan Armando
Why do people defend societal systems that perpetuate inequality and injustice? This question is increasingly relevant in today’s geopolitical climate, amid growing tensions between calls for progressive social change and maintenance of a traditional, sometimes polarized, status quo. System Justification Theory (SJT) posits that individuals are motivated—due to both dispositional and situational factors—to defend and justify existing social, economic, and political systems, even when doing so may conflict with their self- or group-interests. Competing theories, however, argue that system justification is largely a reflection of those interests. This thesis tests these competing perspectives on system justification across countries and time through four studies, using a consistent four-item measure of general system justification for comparability. Study 1 examined SJT’s status-legitimacy hypothesis in China and the United States, using both subjective and objective indicators of socioeconomic status (SES). Subjective SES consistently positively predicted system justification across cultures and time, aligning with self- and group-interest explanations. Objective SES, however, showed only weak and inconsistent support for SJT in China. Study 2 expanded the scope cross-culturally, comparing SJT to the social identity perspectives and Social Dominance Theory, using data from 42 countries. Results largely favored self- and group-interest explanations over SJT across cultures. Study 3 tested SJT’s claim that system justification provides psychological benefits in the form of enhanced psychological wellbeing using four waves of longitudinal data. Bidirectional cross-lagged panel modeling showed that system justification predicted greater subjective SES via increased life satisfaction over time, but not vice versa, supporting SJT’s claim that system-justifying beliefs can confer psychological benefits independent of materials self-interest. However, when assessing this model using more robust longitudinal techniques, no such effect was observed. Study 4 used a longitudinal quasi-experiment centered around New Zealand’s 2023 general election to compare SJT with the Social Identity Model of System Attitudes (SIMSA). Results showed that system justification generally coincided with self- and group-interests among electoral winners and losers in line with SIMSA. However, among disadvantaged electoral losers, perceived system threat [of SJT] better explained continued system justification than did optimism about the future [of SIMSA], providing stronger support for SJT. Overall, this thesis demonstrates that system justification arises from a complex interplay of individual, situational, ideological, and societal factors. While system justification often reflects self- and group-interests, under certain conditions it functions as an ideological mechanism that can conflict with these very interests to uphold societal structures – especially when those structures are perceived to be under threat. This supports the view of system justification as both an ideological disposition and a palliative mechanism, sustaining societal structures despite inequality. Such insights highlight the challenge of addressing systemic injustice and underscore the need to frame social change in ways that align with psychological motivation and a desire for stability.
An exploration into gender and generational differences in mental health literacy in Aotearoa New Zealand and Australia : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Clinical Psychology at Massey University, Albany, New Zealand
(Massey University, 2025-07-25) Dodge, Andrew
Mental distress touches the lives of many. Society could benefit from enhancing the public’s ability to effectively assist in its identification, management, and prevention. Mental health literacy is a concept that assesses this capacity in the general population. Prior international research indicates that both gender and generational differences for this construct exist, with men and older adults typically exhibiting lower levels of mental health literacy. However, we currently lack an accurate understanding of why such patterns have emerged and an evaluation of whether these differences may be influenced by measurement bias. This study seeks to enhance our understanding of these differences. Using a cross-sectional quantitative study design, a total of 830 participants aged 18 to 76 from Aotearoa New Zealand and Australia completed an online questionnaire measuring their mental health literacy and restrictive emotionality. Men demonstrated lower levels of mental health knowledge and attitudes than women, while partial support was found for a linear pattern of differences across generations for mental health attitudes (with older generations exhibiting lower mental health attitude scores than younger generations). However, given the lack of evidence to support measurement invariance, it is possible that these observed differences were influenced by differences in measurement properties. The results did not support the assertion that younger generations would be more likely to falsely detect the presence of a mental health disorder when presented with a vignette describing normal levels of distress in a difficult situation. Additionally, the study did not find evidence that restrictive emotionality mediates the relationship between gender and mental health attitudes. Overall, this study raises the possibility that gender and generational differences in mental health literacy may be influenced by measurement bias. The findings also suggest that the broad conceptualisation of mental health literacy as a multidimensional construct may fail to adequately capture the nature and strength of the relationships between the variables that it is comprised of. Additionally, these results contrast voices from concept creep literature suggesting an expanding concept of harm concerning mental health terminology among younger generations. Rather, this study suggests that perceived generational differences within this area may be exaggerated.
Do climate anxiety and pro-environmental behaviour affect one another? : a longitudinal investigation : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the qualification of Doctor of Clinical Psychology at Massey University, Auckland, New Zealand
(Massey University, 2024) McLean, Tamara Alice
Anthropogenic climate change poses a serious threat to psychological wellbeing. One particular negative emotional response gaining scholarly attention is climate anxiety: anxious feelings arising from climate change, even among people not yet personally impacted by this global environmental crisis. Research suggests that climate anxiety might be implicated in pro-environmental behaviour. Specifically, climate anxiety may motivate individuals to act in ways that, if widely adopted, could mitigate the damage caused by climate change. Furthermore, there is a common assumption that these sustainable behaviours will alleviate climate anxiety, creating a mutually beneficial cycle where pro-climate actions increase and distressing anxiety is eased. However, these ideas are not well supported by empirical and theoretical evidence. This study aimed to test the hypotheses that 1) climate anxiety causes pro-environmental behaviour to increase over time, and 2) pro-environmental behaviour causes climate anxiety to decrease over time. A sample of 700 Australian and New Zealand adults was recruited via the online research platform Prolific and surveyed monthly on five occasions. Data were analysed using a random intercept cross-lagged panel model, which controlled for stable, between-person differences while focusing on dynamic within-person changes over time. The study found no evidence of a causal relationship between climate anxiety and pro-environmental behaviour. Higher levels of climate anxiety at one wave were not significantly associated with higher levels of pro-environmental behaviour at the following wave, and higher levels of pro-environmental behaviour at one wave were not significantly associated with lower levels of climate anxiety at the next wave. Furthermore, levels of climate anxiety were very low across the sample, indicating that climate anxiety, experienced at a level that causes clinically significant emotional and cognitive impairment, is relatively rare. These findings suggest that climate anxiety is unlikely to have the helpful side effect of increasing an individual’s engagement in pro-environmental behaviour, but neither will it deter a person from taking action. Moreover, taking action is unlikely to reduce climate anxiety. Further scholarship is needed to investigate climate anxiety and its complex relationship with pro-environmental behaviour.
Do stress, depression and anxiety lead to beliefs in conspiracy theories over time? : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Clinical Psychology at Massey University, Albany, New Zealand
(Massey University, 2025-06-28) Fox, Nick
Prior research has found positive correlations between various indicators of psychological distress such as anxiety, depression and stress, and belief in conspiracy theories. However, whether these relationships reflect causal effects remains unclear. In this preregistered longitudinal study, we tested whether anxiety, depression, and stress affect – and are affected by – belief in unwarranted conspiracy theories. Participants (N = 970) from Australia, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom completed seven monthly online surveys between October 2022 and March 2023. Using a multiple indicator random intercept cross-lagged panel model (RI-CLPM), we found support for only one of 15 preregistered hypotheses: a small within-person cross-lagged effect of anxiety increasing belief in conspiracy theories. Conversely, we found no evidence that belief in conspiracy theories increases psychological distress over time. These findings align with other longitudinal studies, suggesting that any reciprocal relationship between psychological distress and conspiracy beliefs is relatively small. This raises questions about the role of distress and existential threat as primary contributors to belief in conspiracy theories.
Investigating decision-regret and distress among psychologists impacted by client suicide : a thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Doctor of Clinical Psychology at Massey University, Auckland, New Zealand
(Massey University, 2022) Marshall-Edwards, Shoni
Background: Mental health professionals are tasked with making critical decisions about their client’s care. It is thus unsurprising that client suicide has been described as a distressing experience among professionals. Significant emotional, cognitive, and professional impacts have been reported which include psychological distress, shock, self-blame, guilt, and absenteeism. Due to the variability of impacts reported across the literature, a novel theoretical approach to understanding the impact of client suicide on psychologists was implemented using two decision-regret theories. Methods: A quantitative cross-sectional survey design was used to measure the impact of client suicide on psychologists. By using structural equation modelling, the following factors were investigated: regret, distress, self-blame, supervisory support, and beliefs about suicide preventability. Additionally, two regret theories were tested which included the following variables as predictors on regret: decision-regret, decision justification, decision-process quality, and intention-behaviour consistency. Control models were tested to control for carefully selected confounding variables, and a supplementary qualitative analysis was included investigating the factors related to coping following client suicide. A sample of 248 psychologists from New Zealand, Australia, Canada, United Kingdom, and the United States of America was included in this study. Results: The results identified statistically significant relationships between the following predictor variables on regret: decision-justification, decision-process quality, and beliefs about suicide preventability. Additionally, a significant moderate positive relationship was evidenced between regret (as the predictor) and distress. The qualitative analysis indicated that high-quality supervisory support and understanding the predictive limitations in assessing suicide risk were important factors in coping with client suicide. Additionally, factors identified that were related to poor coping included judgement, counter-factual thinking and blame, and confidentiality limitations preventing seeking support from loved ones. Conclusions: The present study demonstrates support for two factors which appear to influence regret levels: decision-justification and decision-process quality. Additionally, this study also evidenced regret as a significant moderate predictor of distress, highlighting the role that regret may play in influencing a range of affective states among psychologists following client suicide. The findings of the present study highlight the need for the development of robust support structures that acknowledge the impact of client suicide.
Non-suicidal self-injury and perfectionism in young adults : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Clinical Psychology at Massey University, Albany, New Zealand
(Massey University, 2022) Cory, Emily
Non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI) and perfectionism have each been foci of psychological research, however, the relationship between them has only recently begun to be examined. Further study is needed to understand if and how these concepts relate and the possible causal mechanisms underpinning this relationship. Discussion of the lived experiences of those who are perfectionistic and engage in NSSI also appears to be underrepresented in the literature. The current research, therefore, aims to examine the relationship between NSSI and perfectionism in young adults in New Zealand. The research also aims to examine the interpersonal theory of suicide (Joiner, 2005; Van Orden et al., 2010) to achieve a deeper understanding of the mechanisms of the relationship between NSSI and perfectionism. Using a two-stage data collection and analysis approach, New Zealand participants aged 18 to 35 years old first completed an online, self-report questionnaire to measure their engagement in NSSI, relative levels of perfectionism, and relative levels of thwarted belongingness and perceived burdensomeness. Secondly, a smaller subset of participants with a history of NSSI and experiences of perfectionism engaged in a semi-structured interview to discuss these experiences. Statistical analyses of the survey data supported overall perfectionism as positively related to NSSI. When perfectionism was broken down into two dimensions, both perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns were found to be positively related to NSSI. Overall perfectionism and perfectionistic concerns were both positively related to thwarted belongingness and perceived burdensomeness, while perfectionistic strivings was not. Thwarted belongingness and perceived burdensomeness were also positively related to NSSI. Finally, the relationship between both overall perfectionism and NSSI and perfectionistic concerns and NSSI were found to be partially mediated by perceived burdensomeness. The use of thematic analysis abstracted five main themes from the semi-structured interviews. These themes were: functions of NSSI; perfectionism and academic grades; perfectionism affected by others; NSSI scars and perfectionism; and failing to meet perfectionistic standards and engaging in NSSI. Overall, the current study found a positive relationship between perfectionism and NSSI and demonstrated that perceived burdensomeness may partially mediate this relationship. These findings may have important implications for clinicians working with individuals with perfectionism that engage in, or are at risk of engaging in, NSSI. Having an awareness of the above relationship may improve the implementation of targeted prevention, intervention and treatment methods resulting in better client outcomes. The current findings may also contribute to the future development of targeted prevention and intervention methods in this, and related areas.
The relationships between non-suicidal self-injury, emotion dysregulation, self-esteem, and self-compassion among young adults in Aotearoa New Zealand : a thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Doctor of Clinical Psychology at Massey University, Auckland, New Zealand
(Massey University, 2023-12-19) de Silva, Donnella
Non-Suicidal Self-Injury (NSSI), also commonly referred to as self-harm, has been found to affect a substantial minority of young people around the world; with Aotearoa New Zealand appearing to have particularly high rates of this behaviour. It is associated with poor mental wellbeing, and of particular concern, future suicidality. The research literature to date has identified that emotion dysregulation is a correlate and possible cause of engaging in NSSI. However, it is unlikely that emotion dysregulation is the only potential cause of engaging in NSSI, and it does not explain why people engage in NSSI specifically rather than using other adaptive or maladaptive coping strategies. This research hypothesises that self-esteem and self-compassion may also play a role in why people harm their bodies to cope with distress. A mixed-methods study was completed examining the relationships between emotion dysregulation, self-esteem, self-compassion, and NSSI. A survey of 239 young adults found that self-esteem was consistently negatively related to NSSI engagement, while emotion dysregulation and self-compassion were related to NSSI engagement depending on the analytic method and frequency measure of NSSI used. While providing some support for the hypotheses, the effect sizes were small and the results did not lend strong support to the suggestion that both self-esteem and self-compassion play a significant role in engagement in NSSI. In the qualitative phase, the same constructs of interest and their relationship to NSSI were discussed with nine interview participants. Five themes in total were generated from the qualitative analysis regarding emotion dysregulation, self-esteem, self-compassion, the availability of ways a person has to cope, and their use of their bodies to manage distress. While this research is limited in its ability to make causal claims due to its cross-sectional design, the results collectively suggest that self-esteem is a stronger and more consistent predictor of NSSI than emotion dysregulation or self-compassion; that emotion dysregulation and self-compassion may not be as predictive of engaging in NSSI as the literature to date would suggest when other psychological factors are controlled for; and that emotion dysregulation is not a sufficient explanation of NSSI.
The right tool for the job : an investigation into men's help-seeking behaviours and attitudes in a sample of New Zealand construction workers : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Clinical Psychology at Massey University, Wellington, New Zealand
(Massey University, 2021) Walmsley, Andy
There are major difficulties with mental health and suicide within the New Zealand construction industry; a salient feature of this industry is that it is male-dominated, and men face particular challenges when seeking help for mental health issues. Yet little is known about men’s help-seeking attitudes and behaviours within the New Zealand construction industry. The present study sought to identify factors which are associated with enhanced or decreased help-seeking behaviour among male construction workers. Male construction workers (N = 578) completed a survey that assessed intentions to seek help from different help-seeking sources, wellbeing, attitudes towards psychological help-seeking, barriers towards treatment and perceived stigma. The Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB; Ajzen, 1985) was used as a guiding framework to measure and understand individual and social factors which could facilitate or inhibit help-seeking intentions among men. Open-ended questions were used to collect information on perceptions of stress, barriers to accessing mental health support within the workplace, and different ways that men could help other men access support. Results indicated that masculine gender roles have a negative impact on help-seeking intentions among men within the construction industry. Stoic attitudes towards mental health, perceptions that help-seeking is a sign of weakness or failure, and self-reliance were identified as barriers towards seeking help. Greater adherence to masculine gender roles was also linked to lower levels of wellbeing. The implications of this finding are that men who strongly subscribe to masculine gender roles are more likely to reject talking-based therapies, and shoulder to shoulder interventions, such as workshops and mental health sports-based interventions. Within the TPB model, attitude towards help-seeking was the strongest predictor of help seeking intentions. Results indicated that perceived stigma and barriers to treatment were non-significant predictors of help-seeking intentions within the model. In regard to supplementary variables used within the TPB model, prior positive experiences of working with a counsellor and/or psychologist was a significant predictor of help-seeking intentions within the TPB model. Key barriers identified within the study included time, cost, and having a conversation with a site manager to leave the worksite to access mental health support. The present study identified several areas of opportunity to support men along the help-seeking journey. Areas for intervention included: challenging negative aspects of masculinity within the workplace, including mental health conversations within daily work practices, and creating visible and accessible help-seeking pathways.
A temporal network analysis of risk factors for suicide : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Clinical Psychology at Massey University, Manawatū, New Zealand
(Massey University, 2024-03-19) Holman, Mikayla
Suicide is a major public health concern in New Zealand, with the number of lives lost due to suicide increasing almost every year. The factors influencing a person’s decision to take their own life are numerous and often complex. Some of these factors are dynamic, fluctuating over short periods of time and ultimately altering a person’s risk for suicide. Network analysis is a novel statistical technique that can be used to explore complex causal associations in systems of variables, such as risk factors for suicide. The present study used temporal network analysis to explore the associations between dynamic risk factors for suicide over time. Data collection involved ecological momentary assessment, where a general community sample of 39 adult participants completed a brief survey five times per day for ten days, resulting in 1420 completed surveys. Each survey assessed participants’ momentary experience of suicidal ideation, depressed mood, hopelessness, social support, self-esteem, thwarted belongingness, perceived burdensomeness, anhedonia, worthlessness, alcohol intoxication, and fatigue. All variables fluctuated from measurement to measurement at least some of the time, highlighting the dynamic nature of suicide risk. Temporal, contemporaneous, and between-persons networks of the 11 measured variables were estimated using temporal network analysis. In the temporal network, hopelessness was the only variable that predicted an increase in suicidal ideation at the subsequent measurement. Multiple nodes were estimated to be positively associated with suicidal ideation in the contemporaneous network, including depressed mood, thwarted belongingness, perceived burdensomeness, and worthlessness, while self-esteem was negatively associated with suicidal ideation in this network. In the between-persons network, hopelessness was the only variable with a significant association with suicidal ideation. The results of this study highlight the importance of continuously assessing changes in suicide risk factors given their dynamic nature. Hopelessness may be an especially important risk factor to assess given its temporal association with increased suicidal ideation. Regarding future research opportunities, experimental N=1 network studies about the effectiveness of personalised interventions based on node centrality are an important next step in determining whether individualised networks have a place in personalised treatment for suicidality.
Vaccination in Aotearoa : the role of anticipated regret, temporal discounting and maternal mental health : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the qualification of Doctor of Clinical Psychology at Massey University, Wellington, New Zealand
(Massey University, 2023) Kember, Sarah
Background. Uptake of childhood vaccines in Aotearoa remains consistently lower than necessary for population immunity. Understanding drivers for vaccine hesitancy is a complex but essential exercise. New and expectant mothers are generally primary decision-makers about vaccination for their babies, yet the crucial timeframe for those decisions coincides with the highest risk period for perinatal anxiety and depression. Study aims. This study was designed to test the hypothesis that anxiety and depression in pregnancy and postnatally have an effect on vaccination rates, given research support for a link between psychological distress and decision-making challenges. Decision theory guided the study, specifically temporal discounting, and anticipated regret. Participants’ own perspectives about key influences on their decisions were also explored. Methods. The study was a cross-sectional survey of new and expectant New Zealand mothers, recruited via social media – N = 387 (quantitative); N = 411 (content analysis). Survey items included existing measures (EPDS, GAD-7, MCQ) alongside purpose-built items and open-ended questions. Possible confounds, ethnicity and socio-economic status, were identified from a literature search and statistically controlled. Results. Anticipated action regret (action and inaction) was strongly and significantly correlated with vaccination intention. However, the hypothesised relationships between temporal discounting and either perinatal depression or anxiety were not observed. Further, neither anticipated regret nor temporal discounting had the expected effects on vaccination intentions. The observed depression/intention relationship was negligible, and anxiety was moderately, statistically significantly, and (contrary to prediction) positively correlated with intention. The sixth hypothesis (partial mediation of the distress-intention relationship by temporal discounting and anticipated regret) was also unsupported. Content analysis of open-ended questions suggested six main categories of influence on vaccination intentions - beliefs (safety/risk, effectiveness); knowledge/experience; health protection; formal sources (health officials/professionals); social (whānau/family, others); and pragmatic. Latent themes - fear and confidence, underpinned each category. Most participants reported no change, unless a strengthening of their position, due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Conclusions. Overall, there was evidence of a strong relationship between anticipated regret and vaccination intentions. However, perinatal depression did not have an observable effect on intentions, and – contrary to predictions - perinatal anxiety increased, rather than decreased, intention to vaccinate. Although the hypotheses were not supported here, the findings nevertheless suggest that intention is impacted by predicted regret about the consequences of that decision. Furthermore, a role for anxiety or regret in vaccination decision-making was supported by analysis of participants’ self-reported key influences on their decision-making. In this sample, limited variance in levels of elevated levels of either depression or anxiety (most experiencing no to low symptoms) or vaccination intentions (most being pro-vaccination), potentially affected the results obtained. Further investigation of the role of emotion and perinatal distress relationship is justified.