Pacific Research and Policy Centre

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    Equitable development? : good governance, women and micro-enterprise initiatives in the Cook Islands : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Philosophy in Development Studies at Massey University
    (Massey University, 2000) Lawrence, Christine
    In light of the importance that development agencies have placed on good governance policies, micro-enterprise initiatives, and the role of women in development in recent years, this thesis addresses the question: Have the incentives for Cook Islands women to begin micro-enterprises under good governance reforms led to equitable development? It begins by examining the ways in which good governance policies could both stimulate and detract from equitable development for female micro-entrepreneurs both in theory and practice. An evaluation of the impact that the Cook Islands' Economic Reform Programme has had on equitable development for former public service employees who began a micro-enterprise follows. In accordance with Longwe's (1994) Women's Empowerment Framework, equitable development is measured in terms of material welfare, access to the factors of production, society's willingness to alter the gendered division of labour, participation in decision-making processes, and control over both the factors of production and the benefits of development. This thesis argues that an expansion of the micro-enterprise sector of an economy will not automatically follow the implementation of good governance policies. While the land tenure system could favour smaller businesses in the Cook Islands, Western-style business practices have sometimes conflicted with cultural norms, and micro-entrepreneurs have been disadvantaged in international and local markets by their limited resource bases and poor economies of scale. In addition, by reducing the amount of cash available to consumers and stimulating significant migratory outflows, the economic reforms have further fuelled regional inequalities by making it more difficult for entrepreneurs residing on the outer islands than those based on Rarotonga to begin businesses. This thesis also concludes that the operation of micro-enterprise initiatives has had a mixed impact on equitable development for Cook Islands women. More men than women have benefited from Government business incentives and Cook Islands women have typically been restricted to industries that yield low returns because of their skill mixes. In addition, while many have enjoyed increased flexibility in their time use, fewer Government services coupled with the effort required to manage their businesses have increased some women's workloads, causing poor health, reducing the time that they have spent with their families and precluding some from participating in decision-making processes. On a positive note, the growth in tourism has supported the micro-enterprise ventures of Cook Islands women. In addition, successful female micro-entrepreneurs have been empowered by improvements in their self-confidence, personal income, and access to credit, together with more equitable divisions of labour and greater control over family businesses and household incomes.
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    Catholic women's programme in Malaita, Solomon Islands : breaking the culture of silence through empowerment : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Philosophy in Development Studies at Massey University
    (Massey University, 1996) Macbride-Stewart, Sheila
    This thesis describes the initiation, development and progress of a programme to empower Melanesian village women. The women are disadvantaged in many ways, among them being minimal literacy skills and living in a patriarchal society. This thesis found that revealing to the women their great value and skills and so increasing their self-worth and confidence was a crucial initial step of the programme. A participatory approach to the women's empowerment targeted personal inner development of the women rather than being pre-occupied with income generating projects as so many women's programmes are. The programme expanded from teaching about leadership, women's roles and integral human development, to include a health programme and a young women's programme. The programme is assessed in terms of the achievements of its goal of empowering women. It was found to address strategic gender needs that the women themselves had identified during the programme. Women are now more able to challenge men and tradition in order to work towards a more equitable society.
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    International approaches to literacy for gender empowerment : a review of the literature and analysis in relation to Timor-Leste : a research project presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of International Development, Development Studies, Massey University, Manawatu, New Zealand
    (The Author, 2012) Martins, Sandra Gusmao
    After 400 years of colonial rule and illegal occupation Timor-Leste gained independence (World Bank, 2004). However, in the wake of this, as they sought to rebuild the country, the newly founded government was faced with numerous development challenges, such as wide spread illiteracy and a non-existent education system. Given this non-existent education system and the extent of illiteracy noted more in the rural areas and in relation to women, part of the solution to addressing the issue was to implement informal literacy programmes. It was argued that increasing women?s literacy was an important strategy for increasing women?s social, political and economic participation and achieving empowerment (Olufunke, 2011). However there are also debates contesting that participation in literacy programmes automatically leads to the empowerment of women, rather the programmes on offered need to be understood in the context of the place where they are being delivered (Stromquist, 2002). With this in mind this research project seeks to critically explore firstly, international approaches to adult literacy with a specific focus on gender and empowerment, and secondly, the relevance of these international approaches to adult literacy as an empowering tool in relation to women in Timor-Leste. This desk-based exploration unpacks four international approaches to adult literacy, which come under the umbrella of critical literacy approaches, these are: „New Literacy Studies? (NLS), „Real Literacies Approach? (RLA), the „REFLECT? Method, and the „Community Literacy Approach? (CLA). These four approaches are critically discussed in relation to women?s empowerment focusing specifically on debates by Rowlands (1995, 1997) and Kabeer (1999), who draw on Freire?s (1970) concept of empowerment, conscientization. Having interrogated these four approaches I then reflected upon them in terms of the Timor-Leste situation, focusing specifically on issues of effectiveness and appropriateness. I conclude that rural women can experience empowerment through participation in adult literacy programmes. In considering the REFLECT Method, the common empowerment dimensions experienced are the personal sphere or dimension (Rowlands, 1995, 1997), the achievement dimension (Kabeer, 1999), with evidence of „conscientization? or critical consciousness (Freire, 1970). The REFLECT Method is thus considered to be the most appropriate and effective approach to adult literacy and gender in Timor-Leste. However, this approach can also be combined with other approaches (in particular the RLA), which is implemented nationwide in Timor-Leste. However it is important to note that literacy itself does not guarantee empowerment, there is a need to think beyond literacy and how (within) this process women can access their fundamental rights, as well as possibilities of power (Archer, 2002).
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    Sport as a vehicle for development in Vanuatu : a review of the literature and analysis of the Women's Island Cricket Project : a research project presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Masters of International Development, Development Studies, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
    (The Author, 2014) Farrell, Julie Ann
    Approaches to development delivery have changed significantly post World War II. Current development delivery practices are often referred to as the 4th paradigm of aid delivery. A focus on the concept of empowerment through the delivery of aid has become very popular, especially in relation to women’s development (Cornwall & Brock, 2005, Batliwala, 2007). The 3rd Millennium Development Goal with an aim to empower women is a good example of the increased international focus on and support for, the development of women around the world. This popularity has also surfaced within the new and emerging Sport-for-Development paradigm. The marrying of Sport for Development and empowerment seem to be synonymous in a number of aid projects. However due to the fact that empowerment is a multi-faceted and contested term, there are issues concerning implementation and effectiveness of Sports for Development projects. Monitoring and evaluating Sport for Development projects continues to be an issue many writers lament about. As many have empowerment as an end goal, this is something that causes disquiet in the development field. With the above-mentioned in mind, this research project aimed to investigate, via a desk-based study and field observations, in what ways the Women’s Island Cricket Project in Vanuatu has contributed to women’s empowerment and identify what some of the consequences of this empowerment of participants were at the personal, family and community level. Using Kabeer’s (1999, 2005) notion that empowerment is about the ability to make choices to improve one’s life, and transform one’s life, I consider whether the women involved in the cricket project had acquired agency – the ability to transform – and whether the women have changed the way they feel about themselves and have been able to improve their own self-efficacy. My research identified that Island cricket has considerable ‘buy-in’ by the participants of the Women’s Island Cricket Project and their families. I conclude that this project has been successful, resulting in empowerment-type behavioural change for participants. Whilst paternalistic attitudes towards women exist in Vanuatu, on Ifira Island, the project has challenged and transformed some of these historical attitudes. Development Alternatives for Women of a New Era’s idea that women’s solidarity adds to empowerment (Sen & Grown, 1988) was observed by me when attending the Women’s Island Cricket Committee meeting. Whilst Vanuatu women who play cricket are the focus of this aid project, the reality is that despite sport for women not being equal with empowerment opportunities available to male sports people, well-planned and well-organised Sport for Development projects that involve local women in the planning, implementation and evaluation, are meritorious and provide considerable scope to transform participant’s lives.
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    Pisinisi laititi : Samoan women and the informal sector : a thesis presented in fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Master of Philosophy in Development Studies at Massey University
    (Massey University, 1999) Dunlop, Emma Repeka
    The informal sector has become an important concept in development theory and practice since its introduction in the early 1970s. The informal sector is the term given to the small economic activities, which involve labour-intensive methods of production and labour. These activities are considered 'informal' because they generally operate outside the legal environment, and therefore largely escape recognition, enumeration, regulation and protection by the Government. Research on the informal sector in the Pacific proposes that informal sector activities are the major means of livelihood security for a significant number of Pacific families today. Further it is unlikely that Pacific Countries will be able to create sufficient paid employment opportunities to meet the growing demands for waged jobs. To date there has been very little research on Samoa's informal sector activities or the role of the informal sector within the macro-economy. This general lack of recognition of informal sector activities reflects that these activities are traditionally seen as 'women's work' - a way in which women earn 'pin money' to supplement the family budget. Recognition of women's work is a key strategy in women's empowerment - an approach that has become very closely aligned with poverty alleviation strategies in the world. This is a study of Samoan women and the informal sector. This research has two aims: the first is to review the nature and extent of Samoan women's informal sector activities today, and to review the adequacy and effectiveness of the measures in place to support women's activities. Based on these findings, the second aim of this research is to examine the extent to which macro-level recognition and research of the role of the informal sector in the Samoan economy, should be encouraged. Samoan women are the sample group, because women are a very visible part of the informal sector scene today. The results of the fieldwork show the importance of the informal sector to individual empowerment, household social and economic security, community development and the national economy. Samoan women are predominantly involved in agricultural and agricultural-related activities, thus reinforcing the semi-subsistence economy. Samoan women are also involved in 'multiple economic activities' - a strategy which is used to spread risk over a number of options. The study also found that the money that Samoan women earn in their informal sector activities is vital to the livelihood security of their families. This research concludes with a discussion of the ways in which the informal sector in Samoa can be encouraged and developed.
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    Gender, culture and business assistance in Western Samoa : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Philosophy in Development Studies at Massey University
    (Massey University, 1996) Shadrake, Andrew
    This thesis examines the question: How far did the planning and implementation of the Small Business Enterprise Centre of Western Samoa take into account the gender and culture perspectives of development, and to what degree are those perspectives reflected in its outcomes? It does so by reviewing the gender and culture perspectives of development, and concluding that each can be divided into two approaches. The gender perspective comprises the market approach, which aims to use women's effort to achieve economic growth, and the empowerment approach, which aims to increase the ability of women to alter the gender balance of women and men, in favour of women. The culture perspective comprises both the utilitarian approach, which advocates adapting development projects to local culture to make them more likely to succeed, and the moral approach, the purpose of which is to reduce the harmful effects of development on indigenous culture. The thesis identifies indicators of the different approaches in a development project, and then uses a four-stage analytical model to discover whether they were present in the Small Business Enterprise Centre of Western Samoa. The thesis concludes that the planning and implementation of the Small Business Enterprise Centre showed a limited application of the market and utilitarian approaches, but did not show any application of the empowerment or moral approaches, though the outcomes of the SBEC included some empowerment of women, and few harmful effects on Samoan culture. The thesis shows the primacy of neo-liberal thinking in New Zealand's overseas small-business development practice during the period 1990-1995, despite its stated concern for women and, to a lesser extent, for culture. The thesis reached three conclusions which concern wider issues: • While the nature of Western Samoan culture, and gender relations, is changing, there is no fundamental inconsistency between them and small business development. • Neo-liberalism can adopt perspectives of development which appear to spring from a concern for social welfare, and turn them to its own ends. • The combination of indicators of different perspectives and the four-stage analytical model used in the thesis can be used, very effectively, for detailed assessment of the planning, implementation and outcomes of a development project.
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    Too many hats : exploring the possibilities for women's political empowerment within Cook Islands civil society : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Philosophy in International Development at Massey University, Manawatu, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2013) Stenson, Barbara-Anne
    This thesis explores the possibilities for women’s political empowerment beyond numbers represented in national parliament. Women’s perspectives and contributions to policy decision making are seen as a key factor in a nation’s development and women’s representation in national parliament is a key indicator of the Millennium Development Goal Three on Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment. However, this thesis argues that there are other forms of political empowerment beyond numbers in national parliament that should be considered Pacific women have the lowest representation in national parliaments globally. The international community is encouraging Pacific countries to increase the number of women in national parliaments by introducing gender quotas. However, there has been little investigation into women’s political voices in Pacific societies outside of national parliament. This thesis thus investigates how women’s political empowerment is understood within Cook Islands civil society and explores the various ways in which women in Cook Islands civil society exercise political power. A gender and development empowerment approach formed the theoretical basis for this research. Moser’s (1989) ideas on the triple role of women and practical and strategic gender needs were used as tools of analysis. Fieldwork took place over four weeks in the Cook Islands in mid-2012. Development research principles, as well as Pacific methodologies, guided the fieldwork which utilised a mixed methods approach. The findings of this study show that despite women being underrepresented in national parliament women do exercise political power within Cook Islands civil society. Women often use strategies to exercise political power indirectly, through context-specific and culturally acceptable ways so as to maintain important social and political relationships. Women work collaboratively with government and many contribute to policy development and implementation. Despite this however, women are being stretched in their roles within the community by neoliberal donor and government policies and programmes. The main implications of the findings, and the conclusion of the thesis, is that development policy and practice must take into consideration women’s multiple roles and recognise that advocacy work within civil society is an important strategic gender need. Civil society advocacy should be supported by donor programmes to encourage women to be politically involved in their country’s development.
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    Gender, security, and development : a Bougainville case study : a thesis presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Philosophy in Development Studies at Massey University, Palmerston North
    (Massey University, 2013) Cuddy, Sharon
    Research on contemporary alignments of development and security agendas has paid limited attention to how gender relations, roles and issues of equality are constructed and experienced within post-conflict contexts. While practices like gender mainstreaming have been committed to in principle and in policy by organisations and countries heavily involved in development and security interventions, more research is required into actual practices and outcomes. This thesis utilises a case study, the Bougainville Community Policing Project, to examine the efficacy of gender approaches practiced within a merged securitydevelopment intervention. The research highlights how increased participation of women within such interventions, while important for meeting practical gender needs, is not in itself enough to enable more strategic gender needs to be met. In seeking to understand more fully the gendered impacts of such interventions on communities the prioritising of particular development issues over others, including gender equality, becomes visible.