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Farmer-extensionist relationships and knowledge co-construction : ethnographic case studies of public rural extension in central Chile : a thesis presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Agriculture and Environment, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
(Massey University, 2025-10-15) campos, samuel
This study explores how the relationship between small farmers and extensionists in central Chile shapes knowledge co-construction. While agricultural extension researchers increasingly recognize the importance of social-interpersonal relationships, there is little empirical and contextualized research exploring how this unfolds into practice. Through ethnographic methods, this research shows stories and descriptions from fieldwork, highlighting how farmers and extensionists organize their relationships and co-construct knowledge. While at an upper level, relationships are organized by structures and formal expectations drawn by policy and extension institutions, these constraints are navigated through interpersonal relationships. Findings reveal that farmers and extensionists build their relationships on trust and respect, usually leading to deeper layers like duty of care, commitment, and affection. This study maintains that relationships work as a mechanism that fosters social responsiveness and flexibility. Communication, as the ability to listen, enables a safe space to talk, providing better opportunities for the development of relationships and learning. In this research, knowledge is shown as a dialogic and negotiated, dynamic, subject to validity and contestation, and shaped by how actors perceive mutual trustworthiness. This study contributes to adding empirical evidence and insight that supports agricultural extension as a social phenomenon, where human relationships are core to understanding how extension programs happen at the level of implementation and knowledge co-constructed.
Comparing nitrate leaching between contemporary and regenerative dairy pasture management : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science, Agricultural Science at Massey University, Manawatū, Palmerston North, New Zealand
(Massey University, 2025) Wittahachchi, Udara Dilhani
New Zealand’s dairy industry is crucial to the national economy, yet it faces significant environmental challenges, particularly nitrate (NO₃⁻) leaching from intensive pasture-based farming systems. The concentrated nitrogen (N) in urine patches left by grazing cows is the primary contributor to NO₃⁻ leaching in dairy pastures. While various mitigation strategies have been explored, many have come with limitations. Lower N input regenerative management has emerged as a potential approach to reduce NO₃⁻ leaching, particularly when combined with diverse pasture. More diverse pasture swards that include deeper-rooted species and herbs already known to reduce leaching have the potential to mitigate NO₃⁻ -N loss from NZ dairy systems. The measurement of NO₃⁻ leaching in free-draining soils is challenging due to the lack of methods that can accurately collect drainage at a scale representing the variability in a pasture paddock. Therefore, the objectives of this research were to 1) assess the effectiveness of trench lysimeters to measure drainage and NO₃⁻ leaching in a free-draining Manawatū sandy loam soil, 2) compare NO₃⁻ concentrations measured using trench lysimeters with a suction cup array, and 3) evaluate and compare NO₃⁻ leaching under three pasture management systems: standard pasture with contemporary management (Std-Con), diverse pasture with regenerative management (Div-Reg), and diverse pasture with contemporary management (Div-Con). The research was conducted over a period of two years (2023 and 2024) at Dairy One farm at Massey University near Palmerston North, utilising 12 trench lysimeters and 90 suction cups on three different pasture treatments, namely Std-Con, Div-Reg and Div-Con. Contemporary management follows DairyNZ best practices with lower post-grazing residuals and uses mineral/synthetic fertilisers and chemical sprays as needed. Regenerative management involves longer grazing intervals, higher post-grazing residuals, and reduced use of mineral/synthetic fertilisers and chemical sprays. The four trench lysimeters per treatment reliably measured drainage depths with generally low standard errors across different drainage events, indicating their reliability for measuring drainage in free-draining soils. Compared to trench lysimeters, suction cups were less effective, recording significantly lower NO₃⁻-N concentrations with higher variability. In cases where suction cup NO₃⁻ -N concentrations were high; this was likely due to individual urine patches resulting in large variability between replicates. In both years, the Div-Con treatment had the highest NO₃⁻- N load, followed by Std-Con and Div-Reg; however, unusually elevated NO₃⁻-N concentrations in two lysimeters associated with the Div-Con treatment were responsible for this effect. Therefore, further investigation is required to verify the results from this treatment. In 2023, NO₃⁻ N loads were 3 and 14 kg N/ha for Div-Reg and Std-Con, respectively. In 2024, the values increased to 5 and 24 kg N/ha. Both methods indicated a declining trend in NO₃⁻-N concentrations across all treatments as the drainage season progressed. Compared to the Std-Con treatment, the Div-Reg treatment consistently measured only 21.4% and 20.8% of NO₃⁻-N leaching in 2023 and 2024, respectively, but further monitoring is needed to address the challenges identified in this study and to more thoroughly assess differences between treatments.
Assessing soil organic carbon stocks and sequestration opportunities on a Taranaki dairy farm : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Agricultural Science at Massey University, Manawatū, New Zealand
(Massey University, 2024) Boot, Andrew
Increasing soil organic carbon stocks (SOCS) on farms is widely accepted as a viable strategy to reduce agriculture’s net carbon footprint. Despite this opportunity, unlike in other countries such as Australia, there are no government-led incentives for farmers to monitor or increase SOCS in New Zealand (NZ). This lack of incentives, combined with the high cost of SOCS benchmarking and monitoring systems, has hampered the monitoring of farm-scale SOCS in NZ. With the variety of climates and farming systems across the country, this lack of data has meant that the scope to increase SOCS has not been well characterised. Consequently, the strategies to enhance SOCS in soils which already have medium to high SOCS have not been explored thoroughly. This study designed and implemented a practical, cost-effective farm-scale SOCS benchmarking and monitoring system based on a combination of international standards and the NZ Ministry for Primary Industries (MPI) soil carbon monitoring methods and applied this to the Dairy Trust Taranaki Kavanagh Farm in South Taranaki. The influence of soil drying and sample storage on possible changes in soil carbon respiration was also explored in this process and found some carbon respiration in both air-dried and imperfectly dried soil samples while in storage. The results of the benchmarking survey found that Kavanagh farm has 219.6 t C ha-1 to a depth of 60 cm and 162.14 t C ha-1 to a depth of 30 cm which is significantly above average for Allophanic pasture soils measured previously in NZ. The results also highlighted the importance of stratification of the farm as a way of reducing future survey cost. The final stratification of the farm reduced the number of samples required in the survey by 59% when compared to random sampling with no stratification. Finally, the study reviewed NZ-based research to identify farm management practices which may increase SOCS on a dairy farm like the Kavanagh farm. Our review highlighted inversion tillage and biochar applications as practices with the most potential to increase SOCS in Kavanagh’s high SOCS Allophanic soil by approximately 0.56 and 1.1 t C ha-1 year-1 respectively over the next 20 – 30 years. If these sequestration rates could be achieved throughout the entire farm, then net greenhouse gas emissions from the farm could be offset by 46%. However, practical limitations and the financial viability of implementing these practices across the entire farm without financial incentives will likely result in a lower net rate of sequestration. Further research into the viability and efficacy of these practices will be needed for more widespread adoption of carbon sequestration enhancing practices in the NZ pastoral industry.
Bird responses to kānuka and poplar silvopasture on a hill country sheep and beef station in Aotearoa New Zealand : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Environmental Management at Massey University, Manawatū, New Zealand
(Massey University, 2024) Dobson, Sophie Frances Julia
Historically, agriculture in Aotearoa New Zealand has been associated with mass deforestation and subsequent erosion. A popular way to counter erosion in hill country sheep and beef agricultural systems has been to plant exotic poplar or willow silvopastoral systems, however recent studies have explored the use of low density kānuka plantings as a potential native alternative. This study explored how both current poplar/willow and proposed kānuka plantings affect the movements of birds in a hill country sheep and beef station. It analysed the density of trees in various poplar/willow and kānuka groves via the use of a GIS dataset of individual trees across the Wairarapa region. Tree densities were used to generate four sampling categories (Open Pasture, Poplar/Willow, Low Density Kānuka, and High Density Kānuka), and 5-minute bird counts were undertaken in each of these categories. Results show that native and endemic bird counts grew significantly as kānuka density increased but counts of native and endemic birds in Poplar/Willow sites were often lower than those in Open Pasture. Introduced birds showed a similar increase in counts in Poplar/Willow as in Low Density Kānuka. Overall, the native species the benefitted the most from the presence of kānuka were the small insectivorous passerines: grey warbler (Gerygone igata), silvereye (Zosterops lateralis), and fantail (Rhiphidura fuliginosa). No native birds favoured Poplar/Willow sites, however native birds were sometimes witnessed moving through the canopy when poplar plantings bordered kānuka groves. Introduced European starlings (Sturnus vulgaris), chaffinches (Fringilla coelebs) and yellowhammer (Emberiza citrinella) all benefitted from the presence of both poplar/willow plantings and kānuka groves. Significant numbers of introduced Eurasian skylark (Alauda arvensis) and endemic New Zealand pipit (Anthus novaeseelandiae) were present on Open Pasture sites. Given the positive response of on-farm native bird populations to the presence of kānuka, its use as a silvopastoral plant has great potential to align conservation goals with the economic realities of agriculture. There is long term potential to form bird corridors out of silvopastoral erosion mitigation, however more work still needs to be done to fully understand the complexities of on-farm birdlife.
An explorative case study of the adaptation process used by an East Coast hill country sheep and beef farmer in New Zealand to cope with climate change : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master in Agribusiness at Massey University, Manawatu, New Zealand
(Massey University, 2023) Hollands, Sonia Brooke
North Island East Coast hill country sheep and beef farmers in New Zealand are expected to face increased climate variability due to climate change. Over time the frequency, severity and intensity of adverse weather events such as ex-tropical cyclones, heavy rainfall events and drought will exacerbate resulting in increased uncertainty for farmers. As such, due to the changing climate in a farmer’s operating environment the development of a farmer’s adaptive capacity and their ability to manage and adapt to the impacts of climate change becomes important for sustaining a viable and resilient farming system. However, little is known about how a farmer with high adaptive capacity identifies change in their operating environment and the process they use to adapt their farming system to cope with such impacts. As such, to determine the main attributes associated with a high level of adaptive capacity and provide an understanding of a farmers adaptation process in relation to climate change, an extensive literature review was undertaken. This review helped to develop a conceptual framework that was used to guide this study. The main attributes associated with a high level of adaptive capacity that were identified are an internal locus of control, sense-making capability, capacity to learn to live with change and uncertainty, strategic thinking and planning capability, and high self-efficacy. A single explorative case study of an East Coast hill country sheep and beef farmer exhibiting a high level of adaptive capacity was used to investigate the adaptation process. The process used by the case farmer can be usefully separated into three main stages: 1) a sense-making stage where he; a) scans the operating environment for cues that indicate a change, b) identifies a change in the operating environment in relation to climate change, and c) assesses the nature and the impact of the change on the farm system, and 2) a SWOT analysis and strategy formulation stage where he; a) assesses the opportunities and threats that flow from the identified impacts of the change, b) undertakes an internal analysis and capability assessment to determine if the current suite of strategies can cope with the threats and opportunities, and d) on the basis of the previous step, if required, he formulates a new strategy (or strategies) to adapt to the impacts of the change, and 3) the implementation and control stage where he; a) implements the new strategy and b) monitors and evaluates the implementation of the new strategy. The farmer’s sense-making efforts and analysis of the farm system highlights the importance of gaining a complete understanding of the situation of change and its impact before acting upon it through a decision-making process. Based on such the SWOT analysis, it highlighted that the farmer’s buffer capacity to manage and cope with such impacts of climate change may be adequate in relation to the level of change identified in the operating environment. As such the case farmer identified that his current suite of strategies and associated tactics have the capability of coping with the threats and opportunities identified in relation to climate change on the East Coast. Such study also highlights that the formulation of new strategies is not always necessary and therefore prompts the continuation of making sense of change in his operating environment until he identifies that his suite of strategies are not capable of coping with an increased level of change.
Environmental factors influencing survival of poplar material planted for erosion control on hill country farms in New Zealand : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Agricultural Science at Massey University, Manawatū, New Zealand
(Massey University, 2023) Davison, Ebony
New Zealand has naturally high erosion rates, and space planting trees (most commonly poplars and willows species) in hill country landscapes is a widely used mitigation tool (Hicks & Anthony, 2001; Basher, 2013; Marden & Rowan, 1993; Hancox & Wright, 2005; Marden, 2012). The effectiveness of planting is, foremost, dependent on the survival and establishment of the trees. Much existing information on tree survival and the factors that influence survival is unpublished, with few studies having quantitively investigated survival rates and multiple potential explanatory variables. Moreover, there has not been a study to understand how different planting practitioners view the importance of survival and what influences their decisions of where, how, and what to plant in different conditions. To explore these issues, this research involved a set of interviews which captured the current knowledge and views about tree planting and survival within a cross-section of New Zealand’s North Island regional and district councils and scientists (Chapter 4). The interviews revealed a general consensus on the importance of trees in erosion mitigation, but mixed views regarding the importance of certain survival variables (e.g., where on the stems the poles are cut, duration of time between harvest and planting, or wind exposure). Differences likely reflect the different regional climate conditions and practitioner experience. To enrich the quantitative data on tree survival in New Zealand hill country, a poplar planting trial was performed on three hill country farms in the North Island (Chapter 4). With climate considered to be one of the most important factors to affect survival, the trial tested the impact of different climatic conditions on plant survival over one planting season. Data from on-site climate stations and nearby NIWA (CliFlo) climate monitoring stations were used to analyse rainfall, temperature and solar radiation. The trial also tested the impact of morphometric variables (e.g., slope aspect, profile curvature, slope gradient and topographic position index), considered to affect the microclimate and soil conditions. At each farm, a north- and a south-facing slope susceptible to landslide erosion, was selected and each planted with 90 trees made up of three plant types; 30 3-m poplar poles planted using a pole driver, and 30 unrooted and 30 rooted poplar wands planted using a spade. Overall survival across all three plant types (poles, unrooted wands, rooted wands) at all trial sites combined was high (90.4%). The highest survival across all plant types occurred at the Hawke’s Bay site (93%) and the lowest occurred at the Taumarunui site (89%). South-facing aspects had slightly higher survival than north-facing aspects, of 90% and 89% respectively. The Wairarapa had no pole deaths which was attributed to experienced pole planting contractors, but the lowest rooted wand survival (76.5%). The Hawke’s Bay site had the highest unrooted wand (98.5%) and rooted wand survival (93%). South-facing aspects had higher pole survival (98%) than north-facing aspects (92.3%), but lower unrooted and rooted wand survival (90% and 84.3% respectively) than north-facing slopes (91% and 89% respectively). The results suggest there was no significant relationship between poplar deaths and morphometric or climatic variables. However, there was a statistically significant difference in growth rates between the north and south facing aspects, suggesting that microclimate may affect long-term survival. It was concluded that higher rainfall throughout the trial period potentially contributed to higher survival. Therefore, suggesting that in years of higher rainfall (i.e., East Coast during La Niña phases of the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and positive Southern Annular Mode (SAM)), targeting planting in areas of higher non-survival risk should be completed to increase survival rates. Further research under more typical seasonal conditions is necessary to fully explore the morphometric or climate variable impacts. This research has captured the opinions and knowledge of experienced industry prractitioners which highlights the importance of several aligned variables that influence survival. It has provided a valuable systematic analysis of the cause of death of newly planted poplars and quantitatively assessed early establishment growth. These findings will be valuable to regional council planners, land management advisors and farmers and will potentially lead to more positive planting and reduced soil erosion outcomes for New Zealand hill country.
A kānuka silvopastoral system in New Zealand hill country : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Soil Science at Massey University, Manawatū, New Zealand
(Massey University, 2023) Mackay-Smith, Thomas
Soil erosion, water quality issues, low production and climate change are some of the current challenges facing land managers and farmers in New Zealand hill country. ‘Tree-pasture’ silvopastoral systems that build soil resources could be integral land management practices for mitigating these issues and improving the health and production of these systems. Silvopastoral trees are already planted in New Zealand, although primarily used as soil conservation trees. Nevertheless, there are many other potentially facilitative effects of silvopastoral systems on other under researched silvopastoral outcomes. Researching these is vital for realising the full potential of silvopastoralism in New Zealand. The native genus kānuka (Kunzea spp.) in New Zealand has the potential to form intergenerational and multifunctional silvopastoral systems that build soil resources and positively impact pasture production. This is because of the genus’s potentially advantageous bio-physical tree attributes, such as its longevity, potentially reduced competition for soil water and nutrients compared to faster-growing and more resource intensive trees typically planted in hill country, and evergreen nature, potentially influencing livestock behaviour and soil organic matter return to the soil. Despite being locally very common in New Zealand hill country, this study is the first to measure the influence of kānuka silvopastoral trees on the pastoral environment at field scale. The study begins by presenting a novel framework that links bio-physical tree attributes to a wide range of silvopastoral outcomes. Poplar (Populus spp.), the most commonly planted soil conservation tree in New Zealand hill country, and kānuka, are then reviewed as silvopastoral trees within this framework. This process clearly conveyed the complexity of silvopastoral systems and highlights that there may be potential for kānuka to positively impact many silvopastoral outcomes such as longevity, pasture production, livestock welfare, biodiversity conservation and carbon sequestration. The study then investigated the impact of kānuka on pasture production and pasture stability, soil condition and surface runoff and sediment and nutrient losses within a kānuka silvopastoral system. At two sites over two years, there was on average 107.9% more pasture production under kānuka trees compared to open pasture. This pasture production increase was associated with significantly greater Olsen-phosphorus, potassium and porosity. Soil moisture was similar between kānuka pasture and open pasture positions. The improvements to the agricultural environment were hypothesised to be because of livestock excreta deposition under the trees in the sheltered tree environment and tree litterfall. The increased pasture production under the trees was the result of trees facilitating the growth of a few dominant and competitor pasture functional groups via the mass ratio effect such as perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne), cocksfoot (Dactylis glomerata), soft brome (Bromus hordeaceus) and barley grass (Critesion murinum). Moreover, despite reduced species richness and functional richness in kānuka pasture, there was evidence that pasture stability was maintained under the trees because functional evenness and functional dispersion was statistically similar in kānuka pasture and open pasture, and the functional groups that grew had mixed (cocksfoot) or annual (soft brome and barley grass) survival strategies. This indicates that kānuka has the potential to increase pasture production sustainably by not negatively impacting the pasture’s response to stress. There was 53.8 mm annual surface runoff in kānuka pasture and 7.5 mm in open pasture, despite the improved soil conditions in kānuka pasture. Moreover, sediment and nutrient losses were 10–100 times greater in kānuka pasture. Sediment and nutrient losses were a function of surface runoff, and these differences were hypothesised to be because significantly less pasture biomass was present under the trees, decreasing surface runoff attenuation. The pasture biomass difference was likely because of livestock preferentially grazing the pasture under kānuka because of the sheltered environment and good condition pasture. This suggests that a choice between good condition pasture under trees and poor condition pasture away from trees can lead to negative impacts in terms of sediment and nutrient management under isolated silvopastoral trees. Overall, this study shows that tree configuration is a fundamental aspect in silvopastoral systems, and gives evidence that pasture biomass under silvopastoral trees is important for mitigating surface runoff and sediment and nutrient losses. The improved pasture production and pasture species composition under kānuka, in conjunction with the other potential environmental and cultural benefits of a kānuka silvopastoral system identified in the framework, shows that this genus may have potential to transform hill country landscapes by adding economic, environmental and cultural value to New Zealand farms. Nevertheless, because of the limitations of this study, such as the potential impact of site specific conditions and compounded livestock effects, more research is required to provide a full evaluation of the potential of kānuka silvopastoral systems in New Zealand hill country.
The development of management guidelines for sustainable livestock farming in the Hawke's Bay : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Agricultural Science in Farm Management at Massey University
(Massey University, 1996) Collins, Heather Mildred
Regardless of how sustainable land management is defined, it will never be achieved unless land users are involved in, and committed to, its attainment. To commit to a goal of sustainability, stakeholders must share in the identification of resource management problems and in the development of solutions that are both economically and socially acceptable. Facilitated workshops were held with twelve farmer and two agribusiness groups in the Hawke's Bay during July and August 1994. The workshops were held to involve participants in the development of guidelines for pastoral farming in Hawke's Bay and Wairoa, using the "by farmers for farmers" approach. The farmer workshops were used to develop an operational description of sustainable livestock farming and to identify the main components of sustainability. The agribusiness workshops sought to encourage support by this sector for the guidelines and the farmers who would implement them. The advantages associated with sustainable farming applied to all components of the system. The farmer and family, natural resources (the farm), the community and future generations all were all seen to benefit from sustainable farming. Through the workshops, the farmers identified the components and criteria that describe sustainable farming. They suggested that sustainable farming may be recognised by practices that result in productive soil, sufficient water quantity, good water quality, productive pasture, appropriate trees, productive animals, and successful, prosperous and flexible farmers. Using the concept pyramid process, farmers identified key management practices that would result in the sustainable use of soil, water, animals and plants in the fanning system. A farming committee was elected to represent the views of farmers, and work with the consultant commissioned by Hawke's Bay Federated Farmers, to produce the pastoral farming guidelines. The management practices identified by farmers were written to a set of guidelines, which were circulated for public comment and submission. The workshop participants, stakeholders and the general public were involved in the consultation process, to continue the participatory approach utilised in the workshops. All workshop participants were sent a complimentary copy of the pastoral guidelines and a questionnaire. The survey aimed to assess the participants' perceptions and usage of the guidelines, as well as gauge farmer interest and obtain direction for follow-up work. In broad terms, the guidelines met the expectations of farmers and were viewed as being useful for encouraging discussion about, and implementation of, sustainable farming practices
Perceived adaptive capacity of New Zealand dairy farmers in the face of policy and economic volatility : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Farm Management at Massey University
(Massey University, 2022) Shokri, Elham
Increasing global demand for dairy products provided the New Zealand dairy sector with the opportunity to expand. However, that expansion has come at a cost, with dairy farms becoming more reliant on external feed sources, increased debt financing, and irrigation water. At the same time, they have been exposed to a turbulent global economic environment and the increasing domestic concern over the environmental impact of dairying. Consequently, dairy farmers must balance economic efficiency and environmental sustainability in the face of increasing government regulation particularly around addressing deteriorating water quality. This requires dairy farmers and their farm businesses to be resilient, demonstrating some level of buffer capacity, adaptive capacity, and/or transformability. In a changing environment, adaptive capacity is key because a system’s existing buffer capacity is unlikely to cope with such changes. In addition, it is important to avoid inadvertent transformation. Due to the nature of adaptive capacity, the difficulty lies in attempting to measure it. To address this challenge and regarding the role of the decision-maker around adaptive capacity, a shift has begun to measure perceived adaptive capacity. For this measurement, a conceptual framework is required. A combination of five capitals and a decision-making framework was chosen. This conceptual framework is considered natural, physical, financial, human, and social capital. In addition, the risk or uncertainty confronting the business and the management practices are considered in the determination of dimensions for perceived adaptive capacity. In this research, a sequential mixed method was selected. Four in-depth case studies were conducted via face-to-face interviews, focusing on the dimensions of the defined conceptual framework for perceived adaptive capacity. These interviews helped the researcher understand the New Zealand dairy farming context. In addition, the findings from the qualitative phase, alongside previous studies in New Zealand, informed the survey, disseminated to a larger sample of dairy farmers nationwide. The response rate for the survey was 51% (106 out of 209 emails sent) with usable data for analysis of 31% (65 farmers). Principal Component Analysis and Equal Weighting were utilised to calculate the score for seven dimensions for each farmer. The Analytical Hierarchy Process helped to identify the relative importance of each dimension within the framework for each farmer. Finally, the farmer’s perceptions of these dimensions and the relative importance of dimensions were used to develop an index of perceived adaptive capacity. Introducing a new framework and developing an index for perceived adaptive capacity was novel to the literature. The framework provides a lens through the various dimensions that can be used to design a tool to assess perceived adaptive capacity. Moreover, the developed index for each farmer demonstrates that farmers have unique perceptions that build their index. Therefore, classifying farmers as adaptive or less adaptive cannot be conclusive. Instead, the relative importance of different dimensions illustrates whether the individual farmer perceives a dimension as more important than any other to them. A major step toward understanding and increasing the farmer’s adaptive capacity starts from investigating their perceptions. It includes how they see the uncertainty in the environment, how they perceive their farming systems’ capitals, and how important they see the management practices to cope with ongoing changes. The index of the perceived adaptive capacity, also, assists industry agents or advisors to see the farmer’s self-assessment of their capacity to adapt to ongoing changes. In addition, the farmer’s performance in a chosen timeframe shows the consistency (or lack of) between their perceptions and actions. A gap between perceptions and actions can result in a lack of adaptive capacity and may ultimately lead to an inadvertent transformation for the business.
Measuring change in farmers' self-efficacy within the context of managing perennial summer forage crops : a thesis presented in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Agriculture and Environment at Massey University, Manawatū Campus, New Zealand
(Massey University, 2021) Drysdale, Douglas
There is a continual need to consider ways of improving agricultural extension as concern is expressed with the slow farmer uptake of complex new agricultural technologies. Existing agricultural extension research suggests psychological drivers, such as farmers’ self-efficacy beliefs, may be a key variable influencing farmers’ adoption of new technologies. The focus of this study was to firstly measure change in farmers’ self-efficacy as they participated in an innovative agricultural extension programme designed to support learning about the management of perennial summer forage crops (PSF). The second aim was to identify factors that may have enhanced or undermined changes in the farmers’ efficacy beliefs in this domain. Finally, this study aimed to explore how changes in farmers’ self-efficacy might influence their future practice. The participants in this study were thirty-five sheep and beef farmers from the Hawkes Bay, Manawatū and Wairarapa regions of New Zealand. The Riverside Farmer Learning Project (RFLP) provided the platform on which to measure change in farmers’ self-efficacy. A multiphase mixed methods research approach was adopted for this study. A Farmer Self-Efficacy Measurement survey (FSEM) was developed to measure change in farmers’ self-efficacy within the domain of managing PSF. Semi-structured interviews, focus group discussions and field observations provided the opportunity to identify factors that enhanced or undermined changes in farmers’ self-efficacy to manage these forage crops. This study found that farmers’ self-efficacy increased during their 18-month involvement in the RFLP. The project’s collaborative style of knowledge sharing, as well as the opportunity to observe and share experiences with valued peers served to enhance the farmers’ self-efficacy and facilitated new learning about managing PSF. A lack of easily sourced, scientifically robust information concerning the economic effect of PSF weed and plant health management served to undermine the farmers’ self-efficacy within this domain. These new understandings and increased self-efficacy beliefs supported improved practices that lead to the potential to increase farm production. The results of the study suggest that a farmer’s belief in their ability to initiate change in the future is reliant on past successes that employed practices based on scientific evidence. The study also suggests that vicarious experiences are important for farmers where they can observe and talk about the practices of other farmers who have successfully made changes within their farm system, and engage in dialogue with scientists whose research interests focus on the domain of farmer learning. Considering how farmers’ new understandings and self-efficacy beliefs may shape future changes in farm practices, this study provides evidence regarding future development in the design of agricultural extension programmes.

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