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    The effect of solid feed diet on the oral and cross-sucking behaviour of pre-weaned dairy calves : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Animal Science at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 2013) Hansen, Chelsie
    In the dairy industry calves are most frequently artificially reared in groups, which create a greater opportunity for solid feed consumption and non-nutritive oral behaviour. This study aimed to compare the effect of differing solid feed diets on the pre- and post- weaning feed intake, growth rate and oral behaviour of calves reared artificially in groups. This experiment was a randomised block design with the treatments diets allocated at random, in blocks. The research was completed at Massey University’s dairy calf unit #4 and involved 108 Friesian and Jersey x Friesian dairy calves that were allocated to one of three treatment diets: lower forage (LF) alfalfa total mixed ration (TMR); a higher forage alfalfa (HF) TMR; and perennial ryegrass hay along with a pelleted starter (HPS). Calves were reared in 36 groups of three calves per group and monitored until 12 weeks of age. Calves fed HPS had the greatest dry matter intake (LF: 0.80 (0.012), HF: 0.95 (0.012), HPS: 1.70 (0.011) kg/DM/d), live weight at 40 d of age (LF: 60.3 (1.41), HF: 63.8 (1.41), HPS: 67.1 (1.38) kg) compared with TMRs. These calves also spent the most time eating (LF: 129.1 (0.14), HF: 163.7 (0.14), HPS: 154.1 (0.14) mins/d), and spent the least amount of time engaged in non-nutritive pen sucking (LF: 13.4 (0.16), HF: 11.2 (0.17), HPS: 10.3 (0.16) mins/d). It was concluded that, while cross-sucking was not entirely eliminated, providing perennial ryegrass hay along with a pelleted starter resulted in the least non-nutritive sucking behaviour, along with the greatest feed intake and growth rates compared with low and high forage alfalfa based total mixed rations.
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    A study of aspects of utilization of tallow by young milk-fed calves : a thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Agricultural Science at Massey University
    (Massey University, 1973) Betteridge, Keith
    1. Three groups of 4 Friesian bull calves were individually fed from 7 days of age on one of the following diets; (L) - Butter-milk powder (B.M.P.) to promote 0.45 kg liveweight gain (LWG)/day; (H) - B.M.P. to promote 0.67 kg LWG/day; (HT) - B.M.P. supplemented with beef tallow to promote 0.67 kg LWG/day. The diets, reconstituted to 15% dry matter (d.m.), were fed. in direct proportion to the animal's liveweight at the beginning of each of the 3 consecutive 10-day experimental periods. N.B. Skim milk powder (S.M.P.), initially used as the basal diet, was subsequently replaced, by B.M.P. and the trial was restarted. 2. Daily faecal d.m. consistency was subjectively scored on a 0 - 5 sca1e. Quantitative measurements were made in conjunction with the faecal collections for the nitrogen balance. 3. Nitrogen balance data were collected from of the 4 calves, in each group during the last 5 days, and energy balance data during the last 2 days of each period. 4. The addition of 4% tallow (d.m. basis) significantly reduced the incidence of scours (p<0.01) in calves fed a basal diet of either S.M.P. or B.M.P. 5. Mean LWG's of calves on treatments L, H and- HT were respectively 0.57, 0.73 ard 0.62 kg/day; these differences were not statistica1ly significant (p > 0.1). 6. The calves on treatment H, although having the highest urinary nitrogen excretion (p < 0.05), retained the most nitrogen (g/kg 0.75/day) (p < 0.05). The ratio of digested nitrogen retained : M.E. intake was highest for the calves fed the tallow supplement. This suggests that energy rather than protein is the factor most limiting protein deposition in calves fed solely on B.M.P. 7. During the second and third periods diets H and HT promoted a significantly greater retention of energy than did diet L (p < 0.01). The percentage of energy retained as fat tended to be higher in calves on treatment H. 8. The maintenance enerey requirement for a 50 kg calf was estimated to be 53.5 kcals D.E./kg liveweight. The efficiency of utilisation of M.E. for growth was found to be 78%.
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    The energy metabolism of young Friesian calves fed on a diet consisting of milk and meal : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Agricultural Science at Massey University, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 1977) Hughes, Terence P.
    Two Friesian bull calves were selected from those born each week for six weeks during March and April 1975. The twelve calves were used in an experiment to study the energy metabolism of young calves when fed a milk and meal diet. 1. All calves were reared on fresh whole milk with pelleted concentrate available ad lib. Between 21 and 42 days of age intake was adjusted so that each animal received half of its daily allowance of ME from milk and half from meal. From each pair, one calf was assigned randomly to a high level, and its pair mate consequently to a low level of feeding. 2. Energy and nitrogen balances (seven days duration) were measured once for all pairs of calves and twice for the last three pairs. 3. Heat production (MJ/day) was related to liveweight (kg) by HP = .200 LW.980, and metabolizable energy to liveweight by ME = .340 LW.922. 4. The data for heat production, metabolizable energy intake and energy retention were interpreted to provide estimates of 'true' net energy required for maintenance of 0.26 MJ/kg0.75 daily. 5. The pooled values for ME required for maintenance were 0.37 and 0.41 MJ ME/kg0.75 daily determined by simple and multiple regression techniques respectively. The net efficiency of utilization of ME above maintenance was 0.63 determined by simple regression. 6. Pooled values for the partial net efficiencies of utilization of ME for the synthesis of protein and fat were 0.38 and 1.00 respectively. 7. ME required above maintenance per kg of liveweight gain was 16.53 and 12.85 for the high and low feeding levels respectively. The difference between these values was not significant and the pooled value was 14.89 MJ ME/kg liveweight gain. 8. Methane losses accounted for less than 2% of GE. The metabolizability (ME/GE) of the combined diet was 78% and DE/ME 0.94. 9. Obligatory losses of N were 0.19 gN/d/kg0.75, N maintenance (Nm) was 0.35 gN/kg0.75 daily, the digestibility was 81% and the biological value 0.53.
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    The effect of milk feeding levels on growth rates of high and low BI Friesian bull calves before and after weaning : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Agricultural Science at Massey University, New Zealand
    (Massey University, 1984) Wang, Xinjun
    Eight Friesian bull calves from high breeding index parents (HBI, BI of parents = 134) and eight from low breeding index parents (LBI, BI of parents = 103) were used to estimate the effects of milk intake and BI on calf growth performance, voluntary herbage intake, digestion and nitrogen metabolism. 1. The calves were allocated to one of two levels of milk intake from 3 weeks of age until weaning at about 7.5 weeks of age. The milk was fed twice daily at either 4.5 (LM) or 6.0 (HM) litres/calf/d. 2. Daily intakes of freshly harvested herbage (perennial ryegrass and white clover pasture) offered ad libitum throughout the pre-weaning period and for a further 3 weeks period following weaning, were measured. 3. The calves were then grazed on pasture together in a mob and the liveweight at 21-25 weeks of age was measured. 4. Calf growth rates at various stages were recorded. The HM calves grew significantly (p<0.05) faster than LM calves (0.55 v 0.44 Kg/d) in the pre-weaning period. Their growth rate was slower in the 3 weeks following weaning (0.21 v 0.31 Kg/d) but the difference in this period was not significant. 5. The overall growth rate from 3 to 21-25 weeks of age was not significantly different between HM and LM calves (0.52 v 0.53 Kg/d), nor was the calf LW at 21-25 weeks of age (124 v 130 Kg for HM and LM calves respectively). 6. LM calves consumed significantly (p<0.01) more herbage organic matter (OM) both before and after weaning (0.18 and 0.33 Kg OM/d pre-weaning and 1.13 and 1.28 Kg OM/d post-weaning for HM and LM calves respectively). Reducing daily milk intake by 1 Kg increased daily herbage OM intake by 0.11 Kg before weaning and by 0.12 Kg after weaning. The difference in herbage intake caused by milk intake level persisted for two weeks following weaning. It was not significantly different in the third week after weaning. 7. It was demonstrated that the LW at the commencement of the experiment (3 weeks of age) was positively correlated with the mean overall growth rate (from 3 to 21-25 weeks). LW at 3 weeks of age was also positively correlated with the voluntary herbage intake in the third week following weaning, and also digestibility of herbage organic matter in the post-weaning period. 8. By extrapolating the linear relationship between nitrogen retention (NR) and nitrogen intake (NI) per metabolic weight (Kg0°75 ), the estimated nitrogen requirement for maintenance (Nm) was 0.418 g N/Kg0°75/d. 9. There were no significant differences in growth rate, herbage voluntary intake, digestibility or nitrogen metabolism between the BI groups, nor any interactions between the BI and levels of milk intake.
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    The effects of fasting and transport on calves : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science at Massey University
    (Massey University, 1998) Todd, Sarah Elizabeth
    The welfare of domestic animals is becoming increasingly important in New Zealand. Consequently, Codes of Recommendations and Minimum Standards are produced by the Animal Welfare Advisory Committee to maintain adequate standards of welfare for animals in our care. These Codes are updated to incorporate new knowledge which may improve welfare standards further. There is one such Code for the welfare of bobby calves. In New Zealand, calves born to dairy cows that are not required for replacements in the herd are slaughtered for human consumption. These 'bobby calves' are exposed to a number of factors which have the potential to compromise welfare. Work in this thesis is based on the recommendations and minumum standards given in the bobby calf code. The general aim of this work was to investigate the combined effects of transport and nutrition on bobby calves, and to assess the ability of the calves to operate within their physiological capacity withoutsignificant welfare compromise during the bobby process. In this study the metabolic effects of feeding and fasting hand-reared dairy calves aged 1-2 weeks were examined over a period of 30 hours. Parameters used to assess the response to feeding and fasting included PCV and plasma concentrations of total proteins, glucose, triglycerides, beta-hydroxybutyrate and urea. In mild climatic conditions and with access to water at all times, it was found that feeding calves the recommended volume of colostrum or milk at 12 hourly intervals was sufficient to maintain high glucose concentrations between feeds. A period of 30 hours without food had minimal adverse effects on calves as they were able to maintain energy levels during this time without excessive use of endogenous energy reserves. There was no evidence to suggest that significant dehydration had occurred. Work in this study included examination of the metabolic effects of transport duration and stocking density in calves that were deprived of food for 30 hours. PCV and plasma concentrations of total proteins, glucose, triglycerides, beta-hydroxybutyrate, urea, creatine phosphokinase and lactate were measured. Three hours of transport at the recommended stocking density (0.2m2/calf) caused minimal adverse effects in food-deprived calves. Food-deprived calves transported for 12 hours at the recommended density maintained normoglycemia for 6 hours longer than non-transported food-deprived calves. This was thought to be caused by a mild increase in physical activity resulting from the need to maintain balance during transport. Thus the physical activity probably produced a glucose-sparing effect by mobilising muscle glycogen. The response of food-deprived calves transported for 12 hours at half the recommended density (0.4m2/calf) was similar to that of non-transported, food-deprived calves. This suggests minimal physical activity occurred at the lower stocking density and this was attributed to the fact that most of these calves lay down during transport. In this study these initial metabolic responses of calves to feeding were evaluated after 30 hours of food-deprivation in transported and non-transported calves, and immediately after transport of 3 or 12 hours duration. Parameters measured included PCV and plasma concentrations of total proteins, glucose, triglycerides, urea and lactate. Feeding after 30 hours without food apparently caused a decrease in glucose clearance. It is thought that this may have resulted from a metabolic overcompensation due to delayed adjustment of hormones and metabolites from the starved state to the fed state. Feeding immediately after transport restored plasma glucose levels to be within the normal range within 3 hours. As indicated by the parameters measured in this study, hand-reared dairy calves appear to tolerate the combined effects of transport and food-deprivation quite well. However the present experiments were conducted in mild climatic conditions. Air temperatures ranged from 7-13 °C and there was little wind or no rain. In situations of climatic extremes, the physiological capacity of calves to withstand the bobby process may not be as great. At higher temperatures there is a risk of dehydration. At lower temperatures, especially combined with wind and rain, an increased metabolic rate may be required to fuel heat production so that endogenous body reserves may not last as long during times of food-deprivation.